Table 1.
Covariates and their associations with infant neurodevelopment to 2 years of age (n = 405)
| Outcome |
|
BISD-III Cognitive Score |
BISD-III Language Score |
BISD-III Motor Score |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | No.a (%) | Mean (SD) or, β (95%CI) |
p-value | Mean (SD) | p-value | Mean (SD) | p-value |
| Categorical factors – Mean (SD)a | |||||||
| Gender | |||||||
| Female | 199 (49.1) | 108.4 (14.8) | ≤0.001 | 103.9 (11.6) | ≤0.001 | 99.7 (9.4) | 0.17 |
| Male | 206 (50.9) | 102.9 (13.2) | 97.7 (11.3) | 98.4 (9.7) | |||
| Maternal ethnicity | |||||||
| White | 324 (80.6) | 106.4 (14.2) | 0.14 | 101.6 (11.4) | ≤0.001 | 98.8 (9.4) | 0.40 |
| Asian | 37 (9.2) | 102.6 (14.9) | 95.5 (13.0)c | 98.7 (10.5) | |||
| Other | 41 (10.2) | 103.1 (13.6) | 99.4 (13.2) | 101.0 (10.4) | |||
| Family income | |||||||
| ≥ $60,000 | 376 (94.5) | 106.0 (14.0) | 0.25 | 102.3 (11.6) | 0.22 | 99.3 (9.4) | 0.32 |
| < $60,000 | 22 (5.5) | 102.5 (17.2) | 98.0 (13.3) | 97.2 (12.3) | |||
| Birth Mode | |||||||
| Vaginal, No IAP | 208 (51.7) | 107.4 (15.5) | 0.04 | 101.6 (11.5) | 0.05 | 99.8 (9.1) | 0.29 |
| Vaginal, IAP | 88 (21.9) | 104.1 (12.3) | 101.6 (11.5)c | 97.8 (9.6) | |||
| Scheduled CS | 49 (12.2) | 101.3 (11.8) | 96.9 (12.4) | 97.7 (11.1) | |||
| Emergence CS | 57 (14.2) | 105.2 (13.6) | 99.1 (12.8) | 99.2 (9.6) | |||
| Direct Antibiotic Exposure | |||||||
| Yes | 72 (17.8) | 104.4 (13.1) | 0.20 | 99.8 (10.9) | 0.44 | 99.2 (8.7) | 0.92 |
| No | 333 (82.2) | 105.9 (14.5) | 100.9 (12.1) | 99.0 (9.7) | |||
| Older Sibling | |||||||
| Yes | 218 (53.8) | 105.1 (13.8) | 100.3 (12.0) | 99.8 (9.8) | 0.07 | ||
| No | 187 (46,2) | 106.3 (14.7) | 0.40 | 101.3 (11.7) | 0.40 | 98.1 (9.2) | |
| Ear Infection (0–12 months) | |||||||
| Yes | 42 (11.4) | 104.2 (12.8) | 0.43 | 98.1 (9.5) | 0.11 | 98.0 (9.3) | 0.43 |
| No | 328 (88.7) | 106.6 (14.5) | 101.2 (12.2) | 99.2 (9.3) | |||
| Breastfeeding, 6 months | |||||||
| None | 107 (26.4) | 103.8 (11.9) | 0.25 | 98.6 (10.8) | 0.03 | 98.9 (10.4) | 0.95 |
| Partial | 229 (56.5) | 106.0 (14.9) | 100.8 (11.4) | 99.1 (9.5) | |||
| Exclusive | 69 (17.1) | 107.3 (15.0) | 103.6 (14.2)c | 99.4 (8.4) | |||
| Pre-pregnancy weight | |||||||
| Overweight | 173 (44.4) | 104.6 (13.8) | 0.16 | 99.8 (11.5) | 0.14 | 98.3 (10.2) | 0.29 |
| Normal weight | 217 (56.6) | 106.6 (14.7) | 101.6 (12.1) | 99.3 (9.0) | |||
| Continuous factors – β (95% CI)c | |||||||
| Gestational age at delivery | 405 (100) | 1.1 (0.1, 2.2) | 0.03 | 1.2 (0.3, 2.1) | ≤0.001 | 0.9 (0.2, 1.6) | 0.01 |
| Maternal prenatal fruit intaked | 383 (94.6) | 0.35 (−0.51, 1.2) | 0.21 | 1.2 (0.5, 1.9) | ≤0.001 | −0.10 (−0.7, 0.5) | 0.75 |
| Age at microbiota sampling, in months | 405 (100) | 0.7 (−0.4, 1.8) | 0.43 | −0.07 (−0.9, 0.8) | 0.88 | 0.22 (−0.5, 1.0) | 0.55 |
Abbreviations: BISD-III = Bayley Infant Scales of Development Third Edition; SD = standard deviation; β = Coefficient.
Note Neurodevelopment was assessed in three domains: cognitive, language, and motor. The standardized population mean is 100 (standard deviation of 15). Higher scores indicate better abilities. Total sample (N) represents those participants with neurodevelopmental data collected at the 2-year study visit and 12-month microbiome sampling (mean = 12.5 months).
aAnalyzed by ttest or One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
bAnalyzed by linear regression.
cSignificant group comparisons using Tukey post hoc test.
dTotal fruit intake indicates the “5-a-day” method (calculated as sum of servings of fruit, not including juices, plus servings of juice per day).