Table 1. NTD-specific status quo of existing PoC test and future implementation needs for PoC tests.

Disease name	Current PoC tests	Implementation needs	References
Foodborne trematodiases	✔ 2 antigen-based tests and 1 nucleic acid–based test for Fasciola gigantica ✔ 3 nucleic acid–based tests for Opisthorchis viverrini ✔ 1 antigen-based test for Paragonimus spp. ✔ 1 antigen-based and 1 nucleic acid–based test for Clonorchis sinensis	✔ Effective field-deployable sample preparation as DNA extraction is limited to a laboratory ✔ Quality assessment and field validation for all the current PoC tests	[52–54]
Taeniasis cysticercosis	None reported	✔ Quality assessment and field validation of the antigen-based proof-of-principle test (see Supporting information) ✔ Novel biomarker identification ✔ Reliable field-deployable PoC test	[55,56]
Echinococcosis	✔ Several commercial antibody tests for cystic and alveolar echinococcosis (e.g., VIRAPID HYDRATIDOSIS, ADAMUCE, RIDASCREEN Echinococcus IgG test) ✔ 1 nucleic acid–based LAMP test for cystic echinococcosis	✔ More reliable PoC tests as current tests have low sensitivity and cannot detect inactive cysts ✔ Confirmatory diagnostic tests for humans (test of cure) ✔ Field-deployable screening tests for dogs	[52,57]
Rabies	✔ Several commercial immunological tests (e.g., Vet-o-test Rabies Ag and Antigen Rapid Rabies Ag test kit)	✔ Novel circulating biomarker identification for dogs and humans to mitigate invasive sampling (brain tissue) ✔ Field-deployable PoC test for humans ✔ Quality assessment and field validation for all current PoC tests	[58–60]
Chromoblastomycosis	None reported	✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based test as species specificity will aid effective treatment	[61]
Leishmaniasis (cutaneous)	✔ CL Detect Rapid Test (antibody-based test) ✔ Loopamp Leishmania detection kit (nucleic acid–based) ✔ palmPCR (handheld battery-operated device) (nucleic acid–based)	✔ Field-deployable sample preparation is required for the Loopamp Leishmania Detection Kit and palmPCR ✔ Quality assessment and field validation for all current PoC tests	[62–65]
Mycetoma	None reported	✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based test as species specificity will aid effective treatment (bacterial treatment is more effective than fungal treatment)	[66]
Human African trypanosomiases (rhodesiense)	None reported	✔ Novel circulating biomarker identification ✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based species-specific tests will aid effective treatment	[67–69]
Buruli ulcer	✔ Pilot immunological tests and molecular tests (LAMP and RPA)	✔ Quality assessment and field validation of the pilot tests ✔ Field-deployable sample preparation ✔ Confirmatory test (test of cure) is critical in cases of coinfections	[70–72]
Schistosomiasis	✔ Schisto POC-CCA for Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma mansoni Schistosoma ICT IgG-IgM rapid test ✔ UCP-LF CAA assay	✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based test to enable the detection of low parasitaemia ✔ Field-deployable antigen-based test to detect Schistosoma haematobium. ✔ Ultrasensitive field-deployable antigen-based test to detect low intensity Schistosoma	[73–76]
Chagas disease	✔ Several commercial immunological tests (e.g., Chagas STAT-PAK assay, Chagas Detect Rapid Plus test (antigen-based), Trypanasoma Detect	✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based test to detect congenital chagas disease	[13,77,78]
Leishmaniasis (visceral)	✔ IT-LEISH Kit ✔ Kalazar Detect ✔ Onsite Leishmania AB Rapid Test ✔ VL-LFD device	✔ A robust test for use in East Africa, where the IT-LEISH Kit is not effective ✔ Quality assessment and field validation of the VL-LFD device ✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based test (test of cure), which is crucial for the diagnosis of post-kala-azar (PKDL)	[79–81]
Lymphatic filariasis	✔ Alere Filariasis Test Strip (antibody-based) ✔ SD BIOLINE Lymphatic Filariasis IgG4 (antigen-based) ✔ Brugia Rapid (antigen-based)	✔ Field-deployable PoC test without cross-reactivity with Loa loa ✔ Multiplexed test with Loa loa ✔ Novel circulating biomarker identification	[82,83]
Chikungunya	✔ SD BIOLINE Chikungunya (antigen-based) ✔ Chikungunya IgM Combo Rapid Test CE (antigen-based)	✔ Quality assessment and field validation ✔ Field-deployable PoC test without cross-reactivity with dengue ✔ Multiplexed test with dengue ✔ Novel circulating biomarker identification	[84,85]
Scabies	✔ Burrow ink test ✔ Handheld dermatoscopy test	✔ A standardized diagnostic procedure will prevent misdiagnoses and delayed treatment	[86–88]
Onchocerciasis	✔ SD BIOLINE Onchocerciasis IgG4 (antigen-based) ✔ SD BIOLOINE Onchocerciasis/LF biplex test with Onchocerca volvulus and Wuchereria bancrofti (antigen-based)	✔ Field-deployable PoC test without cross-reactivity with Loa loa as this coinfection affects the treatment regimen ✔ Novel circulating biomarker identification ✔ Confirmatory test (test of cure) to aid surveillance in the current eradication era	[89]
Human African trypanosomiases (gambiense)	✔ SD BIOLINE HAT and SD BIOLINE HAT 2.0 (antigen-based) ✔ HAT Sero K-Set (antigen-based)	✔ Quality assessment and field validation ✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based species-specific tests will aid effective treatment ✔ Confirmatory test (test of cure)	[90–92]
Snake bite envenoming	✔ 1 test for 5 Australian species (antibody-based)	✔ PoC test that is multiplexed for species that are geographically distinct ✔ A reliable PoC coagulation analyzer to diagnose coagulopathy	[13,93–95]
Dengue	✔ Multiple commercial antigen and antibody-based tests (e.g., SD BIOLINE Dengue Duo Rapid Test Kit and ASSURE Dengue IgA Rapid test (antigen-based)	✔ Field-deployable PoC test without cross-reactivity with the Zika virus ✔ Novel circulating biomarker identification ✔ Multiplexed test with the Zika virus	[13,96–98]
Dracunculiasis	None reported	✔ Field-deployable nucleic acid–based test for humans, for canines, and for copepods (crustaceans) to test bodies of water for surveillance purposes during the current eradication era	[8,99]
Leprosy	None reported	✔ Quality assessment and field validation of the biomarker-based proof-of-principle test (see Supporting information)	[39]
Soil-transmitted helminthiases	✔ Kankanet (smart microscopy tool)	✔ Improved algorithms for other infectious species as Kankanet can only detect Ascaris lumbricoides ✔ Field-deployable test to detect resistance to treatment and test of cure ✔ Multiplexed tests for other helminth infections	[8,100]
Trachoma	✔ 1 lateral flow test (antigen-based) ✔ Grading tool	✔ Quality assessment and field validation ✔ PoC test with enhanced sensitivity to detect acute infections ✔ Confirmatory test (test of cure)	[101–103]
Yaws	✔ DPP	✔ Quality assessment and field-deployable nucleic acid–based test to distinguish between yaws and syphilis ✔ Multiplexed test with syphilis	[104–107]

For each NTD, an overview is given of current PoC tests and the most urgent implementation needs. Current PoC tests are either listed according to their commercial product names or as tests in the pilot phase. NTDs that have several commercial PoC tests, such as echinococcosis, have been described in detail in the Supporting information.

DPP, Dual Path Platform; LAMP, loop-mediated isothermal amplification; NTD, neglected tropical disease; PKDL, post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis; PoC, point-of-care; POC-CCA, point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen; RPA, recombinase polymerase amplification; UCP-LF CAA, up-converting phosphor lateral flow circulating anodic antigen; VL-LFD, visceral leishmaniasis–lateral flow device.