Table 2.
Summary of off‐body nanomaterial‐based electrochemical sensors of glucose
| Type of electrode | Platform | Biological sample | Sensitivity [µA mM−6 cm−2] | LOD | Detection range | Response time | Enzyme | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AlGaN/GaN HEMT | AuNPs/GOx | Blood | 106 | 1 × 10−9 m | 0.001 × 10−3–9 × 10−3 m | < 8 s | GOx | [ 85 ] |
| Carbon fiber | CF‐PEDOT‐GOx | Blood | 8.5 | – | 0.5 × 10−3–15 × 10−3 m | < 2 s | GOx | [ 46 ] |
| Cu‐nanoflowers | Cu‐nanoflower@AuNPs‐GO NFs | – | – | 0.018 × 10−6 m | 0.001 × 10−3–0.1 × 10−3 m | – | GOx | [ 86 ] |
| FTO | GOx/nano‐ZnO/PVA | – | 41 | 2.0 × 10−6 m | 0.2 × 10−3–20 × 10−3 m | < 3 s | GOx | [ 42 ] |
| GCE | GOx/CoS‐MWCNTs/Nafion | Human blood | 14.96 | 5 × 10−6 m | 8 × 10−6–1.5 × 10−3 m | 5 s | GOx | [ 44 ] |
| GCE | PPhECu/GCE‐based PEC | Human blood | – | 0.16 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6–5 × 10−3 m | – | GOx | [ 45 ] |
| ITO glass | 3D porous graphene aerogel@GOx | Human blood | – | 0.87 × 10−3 m | 1 × 10−3–18 × 10−3 m | – | GOx | [ 87 ] |
| Laser‐induced graphene (LIG) | LIG/PtNPs/GOx | Sweat | 4.622 | 300 × 10−9 m | 0.0003 × 10−3– 2.1 × 10−3 m | – | GOx | [ 88 ] |
| Pt disk | PANI‐MMT/PtNPs/CS | Human blood | 35.56 | 0.1 × 10−6 m | 10 × 10−6–1.94 × 10−3 m | – | GOx | [ 49 ] |
| Pt disk | Gelatin/GOx–Pt | Blood | 158 | 0.5 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6–1.8 × 10−3 m | 1.4 s | GOx | [ 89 ] |
| Au | AuNP‐MIPs | Human blood | – | 1.25 × 10−9 m | 1.25 × 10−9–2.56 × 10−6 m | – | [ 90 ] | |
| Au | Copper‐G‐COOH | Human blood | 1142 | 7.96 × 10−9 m | 0.1 × 10−6–5.48 × 10−3 m | 2 s | [ 73 ] | |
| Au | PEDOT–ERGO | Human blood | 696.9 | 0.12 × 10−6 m | 0.1 × 10−3–100 × 10−3 m | <1 s | [ 91 ] | |
| Carbon cloth | CuO/Ni(OH)2 | – | 598.6 | 0.31 × 10−6 m | 0.05 × 10−3–8.50 × 10−3 m | 1 s | [ 92 ] | |
| Carbon cloth | ZnCo2O4 NWAs | Human blood | 3880 | 2.5 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–0.5 × 10−3 m | 5 s | [ 93 ] | |
| Carbon cloth | ZnO | Blood | 4792 | 0.43 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–1.45 × 10−3 m | < 3 s | [ 94 ] | |
| Cu foam (CF) | Nanoporous Cu2O NRs/NTs | Blood | 5792.7 | 0.015 × 10−6 m | 15 × 10−9–0.1 × 10−6 m | < 1 s | [ 95 ] | |
| CNF | NiMoO4 | Human blood | 301.77 | 50 × 10−9 m | 0.0003 × 10−3–4.5 × 10−3 m | 5 s | [ 96 ] | |
| CF | NiCu‐OH@Cu(OH)2 NRA | Human blood | 6560.3 | 32 × 10−9 m | 100 × 10−9 –1.5 × 10−3 m | 3 s | [ 68 ] | |
| Cu foil | AuNPs@CuO NWs | Human blood | 1591.44 | 0.3 × 10−6 m | 0.3 × 10−6–31.06 × 10−3 m | – | [ 97 ] | |
| Cu foil | Cu3Pt/Cu2O Nanorod | Human blood | 5082 | 1.759 × 10−6 m | 0.005 × 10−3–10 × 10−3 m | < 6 s | [ 62 ] | |
| Cu foil | Dendritic Au | – | 300 | 0.6 × 10−6 m | 10.0 × 10−6–15.0 × 10−3 m | – | [ 98 ] | |
| Cu sheet | oxidized Zn–Sn hybrid nanostructures | – | 2135 | – | 0.5 × 10−6–0.1 × 10−3 m | 1 s | [ 99 ] | |
| Cu foil | CuS nanosheets/Cu2O/CuO NWAs | – | 4262 | – | 0.002 × 10−3–4.1 × 10−3 m | – | [ 69 ] | |
| Glassy carbon (GC) | Cu‐NW‐CNT‐BL | – | 1907 | 0.33 × 10−9 m | 10 × 10−6–2000 × 10−6 m | 1 s | [ 81 ] | |
| GC | Cu(OH)2 particle | Blood and urine | 253 | – | < 0.1 × 10−3 m | < 4 s | [ 100 ] | |
| GC | GC/PDPA/PTA/ZnO | – | 20.30 | 0.1 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–7 × 10−6 m | < 2 s | [ 56 ] | |
| GC | NiCo2S4/EGF‐7 | Human blood | 7431.96 | 0.167 × 10−6 m | 0.0005 × 10−3–3.571 × 10−3 m | 5 s | [ 101 ] | |
| GC | NiCP/CNTs | Human blood | 2931.4 | 2.1 × 10−6 m | 2.1 × 10−6–400 × 10−6 m | – | [ 102 ] | |
| GCE | AgNPs/NSC | – | 35 220 | 0.046 × 10−3 m | 5 × 10−6–3 × 10−3 m | – | [ 55 ] | |
| GCE | Au@NiCo LDH | – | 864.7 | 0.028 × 10−6 m | 0.005 × 10−3–12 × 10−3 m | 4 s | [ 52 ] | |
| GCE | Au@Ni/C | – | 23.17 | 0.0157 × 10−3 m | 0.5 × 10−3–10 × 10−3 m | 3 s | [ 53 ] | |
| GCE | AuNPs/RGO | Human sweat | – | 4 × 10−6 m | 10 × 10−6–400 × 10−6 m | – | [ 54 ] | |
| GCE | Co3O4 | – | 212.92 | 2.7 × 10−6 m | 0.05 × 10−3–3.2 × 10−3 m | 5 s | [ 61 ] | |
| GCE | CoMoO4/MPC‐2 | Human blood | – | 0.13 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−7–1.08 × 10−4 M | 1.76 s | [ 103 ] | |
| GCE | Cu@C/Nafion | Human blood | 2565 | 21.35 × 10−6 m | 0.04 × 10−3–40 × 10−3 m | – | [ 104 ] | |
| GCE | Cu@Pd‐CS | – | 23.00 | – | 0.1 × 10−3−1 × 10−3 m | – | [ 105 ] | |
| GCE | Cu2O MSs/S‐MWCNTs | Human blood | 581.89 | 1.46 × 10−6 m | 0.00495 × 10−3–7 × 10−3 m | – | [ 59 ] | |
| GCE | CuO‐350‐AIR | Saliva | 1806.1 | 0.15 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–1.165 × 10−3 m | 3 s | [ 106 ] | |
| GCE | Cu3(BTC)2‐derived CuO nanorod | – | 1523.5 | 1 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–1.25 × 10−3 m | 5 s | [ 107 ] | |
| GCE | Cu‐xCu2O NPs@3DG foam | – | 230.86 | 16 × 10−6 m | 0.8 × 10−3–10 × 10−3 m | – | [ 41 ] | |
| GCE | Cu@HHNs | Human blood | 1594.2 | 1.97 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–3 × 10−3 m | – | [ 84 ] | |
| GCE | E‐NiCo‐BTC | Human blood | 230.5 | 0.187 × 10−6 m | 0.0 × 10−3–5.7 × 10−3 m | – | [ 63 ] | |
| GCE | rGO‐Cu2O micro‐octahedrals (without Nafion) | Human blood | 24.8 | 0.53 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–9000 × 10−6 m | – | [ 58 ] | |
| GCE | rGO‐Cu2O micro‐octahedrals (with Nafion) | Human blood | 415 | 0.96 × 10−6 m | 1× 10−6–9000 × 10−6 m | – | [ 58 ] | |
| GCE | nCuO‐MHS/Nafion | – | 25.46 | 1 × 10−6 m | 0.001 × 10−3–3 × 10−3 m | – | [ 108 ] | |
| GCE | Ni@Cu‐MOF | Human blood | 1703.33 | 1.67 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–2500 × 10−6 m | – | [ 82 ] | |
| GCE | NiFe2O4‐NiCo‐LDH@rGO | Human blood | 111.86 | 12.94 × 10−6 m | 3.5 × 10−5−4.525 × 10−3 m | [ 64 ] | ||
| GCE | Ni‐MOF400 | Bovine serum | 2918.2 | 0.92 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–4.1 × 10−3 m | – | [ 83 ] | |
| GCE | NiO‐NC‐rGO | Human blood | 4254 | 70.9 × 10−9 m | 0.5 × 10−6–20.0 × 10−6 m | – | [ 109 ] | |
| GCE | NiO nanodonuts | – | 904.6 | 1.4 × 10−6 m | 0.05× 10−3–9.5 × 10−3 m | 2 s | [ 60 ] | |
| GCE | Ni5P4 | Human blood | 149.6 | 0.7 × 10−6 m | 0.002 × 10−3–5.3 × 10−3 m | – | [ 50 ] | |
| GCE | Pd–Ni@f‐MWCNT | Human blood | 71 | 0.026 × 10−6 m | 0.01 × 10−3–1.4 × 10−3 m | 3–5 s | [ 66 ] | |
| GCE | PtAu | Human blood | – | 3 × 10−6 m | 0.01 × 10−3–10 × 10−3 m | – | [ 65 ] | |
| GCE | ZnO/CeO2 | – | – | 0.224 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6–300 × 10−6 m | – | [ 110 ] | |
| Graphene | Ni‐G‐PLA | Blood and saliva | – | 2.4 µmol L−1 |
2.0–20.0 in blood 0.02–0.20 in saliva |
– | [ 111 ] | |
| FTO | CuO | – | 1207 | 1.19 × 10−6 m | 1.19 × 10−6–2.2 × 10−3 m | < 4 s | [ 112 ] | |
| FTO | Fe2O3NR | – | 100.46 | 5.5 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−3–2.5 × 10−3 m | – | [ 113 ] | |
| FTO | PdNS‐Cu/Cu2O | Human blood | 0.1 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6− 2600 × 10−6 m | 5 s | [ 67 ] | ||
| ITO | Au‐NiO1− x HNAs | Human blood | 4061 | 0.001 × 10−3 m | 0.005 × 10−3–15 × 10−3 m | – | [ 114 ] | |
| ITO | CuO PNBs | Human blood | 1876.52 | 60 × 10−9 m | 0.1 × 10−6–2 × 10−3 m | – | [ 78 ] | |
| ITO | Hybrid Cu2O‐ZnO | Blood | 441.2 | 0.13 | 0.02 × 10−3–1 × 10−3 m | < 3 s | [ 57 ] | |
| ITO | LI–NiEC–CdS–G | – | – | 0.4 × 10−6 m | 1.0 × 10−6–1.0 × 10−3 m | – | [ 115 ] | |
| ITO | NiNPs/ERGO | – | 185 200 | 40 × 10−9 m | 0.5 × 10−6–244 × 10−6 m | 4 s | [ 116 ] | |
| ITO | Pd‐PBTh | – | 5620 | 7 × 10−6 m | 0.04 × 10−3–0.4 × 10−3 m | 3 s | [ 79 ] | |
| MEM | MWCNTs‐TBA‐MIPs/AFC/MEM | Blood | – | 0.61 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–180 × 10−6 m | – | [ 117 ] | |
| Ni film | Ni/Cu bowl‐like array film | Urine | 3924 | 0.05 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6–2.5 × 10−3 m | 5 s | [ 74 ] | |
| Ni foam | Ag@CNC@NF | – | 3.64 × 1010 | 6 × 10−9 m | 0.5 × 10−3–7 × 10−3 m | 0.1 s | [ 51 ] | |
| Ni foam | ND‐Gr‐NH | Human blood | 15431.2 | 0.1 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–2000 × 10−6 m | 1 s | [ 72 ] | |
| Ni foil | GLAD Ni thin film | Urine and sweat | 1600 | 0.05 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6–9 × 10−3 m | – | [ 70 ] | |
| Ni foil | GLAD NiO thin film | Urine and sweat | 4400 | 0.007 × 10−6 m | 0.5 × 10−6–9 × 10−3 m | – | [ 70 ] | |
| Ni foil | NiMn2O4 NSs@NF | – | 12 300 | 0.24 × 10−6 m | 0.115 × 10−3–0.661 × 10−3 m | 2 s | [ 71 ] | |
| Ni substrate | Cu x Co3− x O4 nanoneedle framework thin‐film | – | 13 291.7 | 1.36 × 10−6 m | Up to 1.4 × 10−3 m | < 0.5 s | [ 118 ] | |
| Platinum foil | Ni60Nb40 nanoglass | – | 20 000 | 100 × 10−9 m | 2 × 10−3–38 × 10−3 m | – | [ 119 ] | |
| Polyurethane (PU) | Ni(OH)2/PU | – | 2845 | 0.32 × 10−6 m | 0.01 × 10−3–2.06 × 10−3 m | < 5 s | [ 120 ] | |
| Porous CuO | CuO PN | Saliva | 2299 | 0.41 × 10−6 m | 5 × 10−6–0.225 × 10−3 m | 0.8 s | [ 121 ] | |
| Pt | CoxOyHz@ZIF‐67/TiO2 NTs | Human blood | – | 0.03 × 10−6 m | 0.1 × 10−6–1 × 10−3 m | – | [ 122 ] | |
| Titanium foils | BiOBr‐TNTA | Human blood | 773 | 10 × 10−9 m | (5 × 102) × 10−9–(3 × 107) × 10−9 m | – | [ 75 ] | |
| Titanium foils | NiCo/TiO2@C NFAs | Human blood | 975.3 | 0.6 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–7658 × 10−6 m | 5 s | [ 123 ] | |
| LIG | Cu NPs | Blood | 495 | 0.39 × 10−6 m | 1 × 10−6–6.0 × 10−3 m | 0.5 s | [ 124 ] |