Table 3.
Summary of wearable glucose‐sensing platforms with specifications regarding the type of biofluids and devices
| Platform | Analytical technique | Nanocomposite | Recognition element | Signal transition method | Biofluid | Response time | LOD | Detection range | Sensitivity | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chip | Colorimetry | – | GOx | Image processing | Sweat | 15 min | 0.03 × 10−3 m | 0.1 × 10−3–0.5 × 10−3 m | – | [ 135 ] |
| Cotton thread | Colorimetry | – | GOx | Digital image processing | Sweat | 60 s | 35 × 10−6 m | 50 × 10−6–250 × 10−6 m | 0.19 µM−1 | [ 136 ] |
| Cotton thread | Colorimetry | CNF/Chitosan | GOx | Image processing | Sweat | ‐ | 0.1 × 10−3 m | 0.1 × 10−3–3 × 10−3 m | – | [ 137 ] |
| Patch | Colorimetry | – | GOx | Image processing | Sweat | ‐ | ‐ | 50× 10−6–300 × 10−6 m | – | [ 138 ] |
| Silicone elastomers | Colorimetry | – | GOx | Image processing | Sweat | 1 min | ‐ | 4× 10−6–40.4 × 10−6 m | – | [ 139 ] |
| Textile/paper | Colorimetry | PU@Chitosan | GOx | Color converting program | Sweat | – | 13.49 × 10−6 m | 50 × 10−6–600 × 10−6 m | – | [ 140 ] |
| Patch | Fluorescence | – | GOx | Image processing | Sweat | 7 × 10−6 m | 10 × 10−6–250 × 10−6 m | [ 141 ] | ||
| Smartwatch | Photoplethysmogram | – | – | Bluetooth | Sweat | – | – | 50–350 mg dL−1 | – | [ 142 ] |
| Skin pad | Ratiometric fluorescence | BiM‐CQDs@PSi | GOx | Image processing | Sweat | – | – | – | 3.46% mM−1 | [ 143 ] |
| Electronic skin | Electrochemical | MDB@TTF@CNT@rGO@h‐Ni | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | – | – | 0 × 10−6–150 × 10−6 m | 0.1 mV μM−1 | [ 144 ] |
| Epidermal patch | Electrochemical | PB@Chi@Nafion | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | 4–7 s | – | 10 × 10−6–200 × 10−6 m | – | [ 145 ] |
| Film | Electrochemical | NiCo2O4/Chitosan | ‐ | WiFi | Sweat | 10 × 10−6 m | 10 × 10−6 to 200 × 10−6 m | 0.5 µA µM−1 | [ 146 ] | |
| Film | Electrochemical | PI@PMMA@APTES@SWCNT@Nafion | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | 5 s | 50 × 10−6 m | 50 × 10−6–1 × 10−3 m |
41.397 µM−1 |
[ 147 ] |
| Film | Electrochemical | CNT‐EVA | GOx | Sweat | 3 s | 3 × 10−6 m | – |
270 ± 10 µA mM−1 cm−2 |
[ 148 ] | |
| Gloves | Electrochemical | BGNPs | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | 60 s | 11.6 × 10−6 m | 0 × 10−3–2.1 × 10−3 m |
20.22 µA mM−1 cm−2 |
[ 149 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | NPG | – | PStouch Android | Sweat | – | – | 0.01 × 10−3–1 × 10−3 m | 253.4 µA cm−2 mM−1 | [ 150 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | WSNFs@Au@rGO@PU | – | PStouch‐PalmSens | Sweat | – |
500 × 10−9 m |
0.5 × 10−9–1 × 10−3 m | 140 µA mM−1 cm−2 | [ 151 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | HA−AuNP | GOx | Wireless | Sweat | 5 s | 0.5 mg dL−1 | 0.5–50 mg dL−1 | 12.37 µA dL mg−1 cm−2 | [ 152 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | PB@Graphite@Nafion | GOx | – | Sweat | – | 5 × 10−6 m | 0 × 10−3–1.9 × 10−3 m | 35.7 µA mM−1 cm−2 | [ 153 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | PET@Au@PB | GOx | – | Sweat | 1 min | – | 50× 10−6–200 × 10−6 m | 1.0 nA µM−1 | [ 154 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | CNTs/Ti3C2Tx/PB/CFMs | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | 30 s | 0.33 × 10–6 M | 10 × 10−6–1.5 × 10−3 M | 35.3 µA mm−1 cm−2 | [ 155 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | PEDOT:PSS@PLL‐g‐OEG4‐biotin | GOx | Microwave | Sweat | ‐ | 0.1 × 10−9 m | 0.1 × 10−9 m‐10 × 10−3 m | 0.026 dB/log (× 10−9 m) | [ 156 ] |
| Smartwatch | Electrochemical | Zn‐MnO2 | GOx | Analog‐to‐digital port | Sweat | – | – | 50× 10−6–200 × 10−6 m | 3.29 nA µM−1 | [ 157 ] |
| Sweatband | Electrochemical | Pd@ZIF‐67 | – | Bluetooth | Sweat | 27 s | 2.0 × 10−6 m | – | – | [ 158 ] |
| Textile bands | Electrochemical |
PU@SWCNT@PB |
GOx | – | Sweat | – | – | – | 8 nA µM−1 | [ 159 ] |
| Textile patch | Electrochemical | SilkNCT | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | – | 5 × 10−6 m | 25 × 10−6–300 × 10−6 m | 6.3 nA µM−1 | [ 160 ] |
| Wearable device | Electrochemical | Au@PI@TTF@CNT#Nafion | GOx | Bluetooth | Sweat | – | – | – | – | [ 161 ] |
| Package | Colorimetry | – | GOx | Bluetooth | ISF | 3 s | 68 × 10−6 m | 0 × 10−3–8 × 10−3 m | 0.026 ± 0.002 mM−1 | [ 162 ] |
| Smartwatch | VIS‐NIR | – | – | LED | ISF | – | – | 70–152 mg dL−1 | – | [ 163 ] |
| Microneedle | Electrochemical | pMB/Au‐MWCNTs | FAD glucose hydrogenase | Bipotentiostat | ISF | 120 s | 7 × 10−6 m | 0.05 × 10−3–5 × 10−3 m | 405.2 ± 24.1 µA cm−2 mM−1 | [ 164 ] |
| Patch | Electrochemical | PB@CA@β‐CD NF | GOx | – | ISF | 3 s | 9.35 × 10−5 M | 0.1 × 10−3–5 × 10−3 m | 5.08 µA mM−1 | [ 165 ] |
| Slot antenna | Electromagnetism | – | – | Microwave | ISF | – | 10 mg dL−1 | 10–600 mg dL−1 | – | [ 166 ] |
| Smartwatch | Electromagnetism | – | – | Medtronic Zephyr BioPatch | ISF | 5 min | 3.8 mmol L−1 | 4–7.5 mmol L−1 | – | [ 167 ] |
| Paper strip | Colorimetry | – | GOx |
LED light RGB color sensor |
Saliva | 5 s | 32 mg dL−1 | 32–516 mg dL−1 | 1.0 mg dL−1 | [ 168 ] |
| Mouthguard | Colorimetry | – | GOx | Image processing | Saliva | 40 s | 27 µmol L−1 | 0–2.0 mmol L−1 | 50.29 AU (mmol L−1)−1 | [ 169 ] |
| Infant pacifier | Electrochemical | PET/PB | GOx | Bluetooth | Saliva | – | 0.04 × 10−3 m | 0.1 × 10−3–1.4 × 10−3 m | 0.69 ± 0.04 nA mM−1 | [ 170 ] |
| Smart toothbrush | Electrochemical | – | – | Bluetooth | Saliva | 5 s | 6.6 × 10−6 m | 0 × 10−6–320 × 10−6 m | 480 µA mM−1 cm−2 | [ 171 ] |
| Contact lens capacitor | Electrochemical | IOC‐SiO2‐PtNFs | GOx | – | Tear | 4 s | 0.012 × 10−3 m | 1 × 10−3–20 × 10−3 m | – | [ 172 ] |
| Eyeglass | Microfluidic electrochemical | PB | GOx | Bluetooth | Tear | 15 min | – | – | – | [ 173 ] |