Fig. 2.

Regulators (yellow) and effectors (red) of resistance and tolerance. Left: innate immunity controls pathogens by ROS production by phagocytes (mainly antibacterial) and upregulation of the IFN pathway (mainly antiviral) as well as activation of the inflammatory response through activation of NFkB. Right: tolerance includes tissue protection by Nrf2-mediated upregulation of antioxidant systems and HIF-1-mediated induction of tissue-protective cytokines (e.g. EPO) as well as promotion of tissue repair through induction of growth factors (e.g. VEGF). Please note the dual role of ROS and GSH both as effectors and regulators. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)