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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: Adv Exp Med Biol. 2021;1303:243–273. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-63046-1_14

Table 3:

Reported roles of sex-steroids in rare lung diseases.

LAM AATD LS Other RLD’s
Estrogen ↑Disease progression
↑Proliferation
Mechanistic evidence available (ERα ↑ severity and progression)		 ↑ A1AT levels
Limited data
No mechanistic studies		 Females have higher risk, suggesting a role for estrogen and progesterone No apparent gender differences.
Sex-steroid mechanisms yet to be explored
Progesterone ↑Disease progression
↑Proliferation
Limited data with no concrete mechanistic evidence		 -
Testosterone - - -