Table III.
Examples of 3D Printing Technology for Parenteral Applications
| Materials | 3D printer | Design | Applications | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Implants | ||||
| PLLA | SLA | Anatomically relevant spherical or cylindrical shape | Sustained release of multiple chemotherapeutics for 12 weeks for osteosarcoma therapy. | [185] |
| PLA, PVA, PCL | FDM | Rod-shaped implants containing different sized “windows” | Sustained payload release from implants modulated via the “windows.” | [101] |
| PCL, PLGA | Extrusion-based | Patches with different shaped pores | Sustained 5-flouracil release over 4 weeks for pancreatic cancer therapy. | [186] |
| Calcium phosphate | Inkjet printer | Implants | Co-delivery of multiple antibiotics for the treatment of bone osteomyelitis. | [102] |
| PLA, collagen, hydroxyapatite | FDM | Scaffolds with uniform macroporous architecture | Combination of the macroporous architecture and antibiotic release allowing vascularization while against bone infection. | [103] |
| PLA, PCL | FDM | O-, Y-, and M-shaped vaginal rings | Shape-dependent progesterone release for contraceptive purposes. | [104] |
| Biomedical devices | ||||
| PCL, PLA | FDM | Bioresorbable stents | Stents with modulable mechanical properties for cardiovascular disease management. | [6] |
| PCL, sulfated CS (26SCS) | Extrusion-based | Bioresorbable stents | 26SCS-modified PCL stent allowed for enhanced biocompatibility for cardiovascular disease management. | [187] |
| PLA, polydopamine, PEI, heparin | Extrusion-based | Biodegradable polymer–coated stents | Stents exhibited excellent anti-coagulant activity and biocompatibility for cardiovascular disease management. | [188] |
| PVA, collagen, PCL, cholangiocyte | FDM | Stem cell–coated biliary stent | PVA-based biliary stents with resisted biofilm formation and enhanced stent patency for biliary obstruction. | [75] |
| PCL, graphene | FDM | Multi-drug eluting stent | Sustained delivery of multiple therapeutics with similar mechanical properties as conventional coronary stents (elastic modulus 400 MPa) | [189] |
| PLA, TPU | FDM | PLA/TPU stent with spiral patterns with controllable spiral angle, thickness, and pitch | Flexible, self-expanding stents with reduced stent migration for cardiovascular disease management. | [190] |
| Wound dressing | ||||
| Pectin, CS | Extrusion-based | Hydrogel scaffold | Wound dressings exhibited good bioadhesion strength (86.5–126.9 g), while maintaining a moist environment for skin wound healing. | [13] |
| PCL, FPLA, PEGDA, PEG | FDM/SLA | Personalized anti-acne patches/masks | Personalized acne treatment with salicylic acid based on patient scans. | [191] |
| Chitosan, genipin, PEG | Extrusion-based | Films | Mucoadhesive and swellable films for payload release to promote skin wound healing. | [192] |
| CS, raffinose | FDM | Wound dressing with controllable microarchitecture | CS scaffolds promoted tissue regeneration in a diabetes-related skin wound rat model. | [87] |
| SS, GelMA | Extrusion-based | Transparent hydrogel scaffold with controllable pore sizes | Wound dressing designed for real-time monitoring of wound healing process. | [193] |
| PU, HA | FDM | Scaffolds designed to release two biomolecules | Sustained release of multiple therapeutics to accelerate wound healing process for cartilage defect. | [194] |
| PLGA, alginate | Extrusion-based | Bilayer membrane designed to mimic the skin dermis and epidermis | Porous bilayer wound dressing to enhanced wound repair or be used as a skin substitute. | [65] |
PLLA, poly(L-lactide); PEI, polyethylenimine; TPU, thermoplastic polyurethane; FPLA, Flex EcoPLA™; SS, silk sericin; PEG, polyethylene glycol; FDM, fused deposition modeling; SLA, stereolithography