Table 2.
Interventions, outcomes, measurements, results, and conclusions of included studies.
| Study | Interventions | Comparators | Intervention duration | Follow-up duration | Outcomes: loneliness scores by measurement stages, mean (SD) | Results or findings | Conclusion by the authors of the study | ||||||
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Baseline | 3 months | 4 months | 6 months | 12 months |
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| Tsai et al (2010) [46] | Videoconferencing (using either MSNa messenger or Skype) | Regular care | 3 months | 3 months | Intervention group=50.58 (SD 11.16); control group=46.55 (SD 9.07) | Intervention group=47.33 (SD 13.50); control group=46.68 (SD 9.08) | Not measured | Not measured | Not measured | Loneliness: intervention group mean: baseline 50.58 (SD 11.16), 1 week 49.75 (SD 11.79), and 3 months 47.33 (SD 13.50); control group mean: baseline 46.55 (SD 9.07), 1 week 47.06 (SD 8.75), and 3 months 46.68 (SD 9.08); differences between groups were compared at 3 points (baseline, 1 week, and 3 months) using multiple linear regression of the generalized estimating equations. Unadjusted or fixed effect size of effectiveness of videoconferencing intervention (videoconference vs control): at 1 week was β=−1.21, SE 0.50, χ2=5.9, P=.02 and at 3 months β=−2.84, SE 1.28, χ2=4.9, P=.03 | Videoconferencing alleviates depressive symptoms and loneliness in older residents in nursing homes | ||
| van der Heide et al (2012) [48] | CareTV including Caret duplex video or voice network | No control group and no comparator | 12 months | 12 months | Intervention group=5.97 (SD 2.77); no control group | Not measured | Not measured | Not measured | Intervention group=4.02 (SD 3.91); no control group | Group-level total loneliness: inclusion stage: mean 5.97 (SD 2.77), end of study: mean 4.02 (SD 3.91), P=.001; individual-level total loneliness: total loneliness decreased in 54 out of 85 participants (equally lonely 11, more lonely 20, and less lonely 54 individual participants) | CareTV intervention decreased the feeling of loneliness in the participants; however, participants were feeling moderate loneliness at the end of the study | ||
| Larsson et al (2016) [50] | SIBAsb, that is, social activities via social websites | No comparator intervention reported | 3 months | 34 weeks (exposure for 3 months to each group) | Group 1 (I/Cc group)=45.53 (SD 7.41); group 2 (C/Id group)=43.93 (SD 8.61) | Group 1 (I/C group)=42.43 (SD 7.44); group 2 (C/I group)=41.93 (SD 8.82) | Not measured | 3 months after cross over: group 1 (I/C group, no intervention)=42.0 (SD 7.34); group 2 (C/I group, intervention introduced)=39.50 (SD 10.42) | Not measured | Percentage change between time 2 and time 1: group 1: mean score 0.07% (SD 0.07), P=.003; group 2: mean score: 0.05% (SD 0.09), P=.049; percentage change between time 3 and time 1: group 1: mean score 0.08% (SD 0.08); group 2: mean score 0.09% (SD 0.13); comparison of pre and postintervention scores: group 1, P=.003 and group 2, P=.049 | SIBA interventions have the potential to reduce experiences of loneliness in socially vulnerable older adults. | ||
| Czaja et al (2018) [45] | PRISMe system | A notebook with printed content similar to that within the PRISM (intervention) group: included a Lenovo Mini Desktop PC with a keyboard, mouse (or trackball for those who were unable to control a mouse), a 19″ LCDf monitor, the PRISM software app, a printer, and internet | 12 months | 12 months | Intervention (PRISM) group=39.8 (SD 9.7); control (Binderg) group=40.2 (SD 10.3) | Not measured | Not measured | Intervention (PRISM) group=37.8 (SD 9.54); control (Binder) group=40 (SD 10.62) | Intervention (PRISM) group=36.9 (SD 9.16); control (Binder) group=38.43 (SD 9.37) | Baseline: loneliness PRISM group: mean score 39.8 (SD 9.7); Binder group: mean score 40.2 (SD 10.3), follow-up at 6 months: PRISM group 37.8, Binder group 39.6; follow-up at 12 months: PRISM group 36.9, Binder group 38.3 | Technology-based apps such as the PRISM system may enhance social connectivity and reduce loneliness among older adults. | ||
| Morton et al (2018) [53] | EasyPC—a customized computer platform with a simplified touch-screen interface | Care as usual plus regular carer visits | 3 months | 4 months | Intervention (training) group (total of residential and domiciliary groups)=1.92 (SE 0.10, SD 0.73); control group (total of residential and domiciliary groups)=2.08 (SE 0.12, SD 0.80) | Not measured | Intervention (training) group (total of residential and domiciliary groups)=1.86 (SE 0.10, SD 0.66); control group (total of residential and domiciliary groups)=2.12 (SE 0.11, SD 0.62) | Not measured | Not measured | Loneliness scores mean: intervention (training) group: residential group: time 1=1.95 (SE 0.16), time 2=1.92 (SE 0.16), domiciliary group: time 1=1.89 (SE 0.13), time 2=1.79 (SE 0.13), total time 1=1.92 (SE 0.10), time 2=1.86 (SE 0.10); control group: residential group: time 1=2.13 (SE 0.18), time 2=2.20 (SE 0.17), domiciliary group: time 1=2.02 (SE 0.16), time 2=2.05 (SE 0.15), total time 1=2.08 (SE 0.12) and time 2=2.12 (SE 0.11) | Internet access and training can support the self and social connectedness of vulnerable older adults and contribute positively to well-being. | ||
| Jarvis et al (2019) [54] | Living In Network-Connected Communities WhatsApp group for low-intensity cognitive behavioral therapy | Usual care, a separate WhatsApp group (Living In Network-Connected Communities 2) | 3 months | 4 months | Not measured | Intervention group=2.31 (SD 1.49); control group=2.47 (SD 2.1) | Intervention group=1.38 (SD 1.33); control group=4.0 (SD 1.32) | Not measured | Not measured | Loneliness levels: total=baseline−intervention on time 1−intervention on time 2.; χ2=14.6; P=.001 | Low-intensity cognitive behavioral therapy mobile health supported by the social networking platform of WhatsApp (Living In Network-Connected Communities) showed significant improvements in loneliness and maladaptive cognitions. | ||
aMSN: Microsoft Network.
bSIBA: social internet-based activity.
cI/C: intervention/control.
dC/I: control/intervention.
ePRISM: Personal Reminder Information and Social Management.
fLCD: liquid-crystal display.
gBinder refers to a group of participants who received a notebook with printed content similar to the Personal Reminder Information and Social Management System.