Table 2.

Antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-insecticidal activities of C. xanthorrhiza rhizome extract.

No	Potential Disease category	Extract type	Dose concentration	Tested species	Effect	Reference
Antibacterial
1	Dental plaque	Pure xanthorrhizol	5 µmol/L	Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175	Complete inhibition of biofilm formation	[40]
		70% ethanol rhizome extract	MIC: 0.1% (w/v)	Streptococcus mutans type F (MUI)	Bacterial growth inhibition	[41]
2	Food-borne illness	Pure xanthorrhizol	MIC: 8 µg/ml; MBC: 16 µg/ml	Bacillus cereus ATCC 21772	Treatment at 4x MIC reduced viable cells by at least 6 to 8 log in 4 h	[42]
			MIC: 16 µg/ml; MBC: 32 µg/ml	Clostridium perfringens ATCC 3624	Treatment at 4x MIC reduced viable cells by at least 6 to 8 log in 4 h	[42]
			MIC: 8 µg/ml; MBC: 16 µg/ml	Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 15313	Treatment at 4x MIC reduced viable cells by at least 6 to 8 log in 4 h	[42]
			MIC: 8 µg/ml; MBC: 16 µg/ml	Staphylococcus aureus KCCM 11764	Treatment at 4x MIC reduced viable cells by at least 6 to 8 log in 4 h	[42]
			MIC: 16 µg/ml; MBC: 16 µg/ml	Salmonella typhimurium KCCM 11862	Treatment at 4x MIC reduced viable cells by at least 6 to 8 log in 4 h	[42]
			MIC: 8 µg/ml; MBC: 16 µg/ml	Vibrio parahaemolyticus ATCC 17802	Treatment at 4x MIC reduced viable cells by at least 6 to 8 log in 4 h	[42]
		70% ethanol rhizome extract	MIC: 2.0% (w/v)	Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778	Bacterial growth inhibition	[41]
3	Skin diseases	70% ethanol rhizome extract	MIC: 0.1% (w/v)	Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923	Bacterial growth inhibition	[41]
4	Infectious diseases	96% ethanol rhizome extract	100% extract concentration	Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228	Showed average inhibition zone diameter of 9.20 mm	[43]
5	Pneumonia	100% methanol rhizome extract	MIC:1.25 mg/ml; MBC: 2.5 mg/ml	Klebsiella pneumonia ATCC 13773	The bacteria completely killed at 4x MIC for 15 min	[44]
6	Tuberculosis	96% ethanol rhizome extract	MIC: 1600 µg/ml; MBC: 3200 µg/ml	Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv	Bacterial growth inhibition	[44]
7	Pulp necrosis	Essential oil extract	25%–100% extract concentration	Enterococcus faecalis	Inhibition zone: 8–11 mm (medium level antibacterial)	[45]
				Fusobacterium nucleatum	Inhibition zone: 8–11 mm (medium level antibacterial)	[45]
8	Diarrhea	96% ethanol rhizome extract + nanoparticles	500 µg/ml	Escherichia coli	Bacterial growth inhibition	[46]
9	Typhus	96% ethanol rhizome extract + nanoparticles	500 µg/ml	Salmonella typhi	Bacterial growth inhibition	[46]
		96% ethanol rhizome extract + nanoparticles	500 µg/ml	Bacillus subtilis	Bacterial growth inhibition	[46]
10	Acne	Essential oil of flower bract	MIC: 1 mg/ml; MBC: 3 mg/ml	Propionibacterium acnes	Bacterial growth inhibition	[47]
Antifungal
11	Nosocomial infections	Pure xanthorrhizol	8 µg/mL	Candida albicans	Inhibition of biofilm formation and conidial germination	[48]
12	Hospital-acquired infection	Pure xanthorrhizol	MIC: 1.0–10 mg/l; MFC: 15 mg/ml	Candida glabrata	Able to kill the Candida strains	[40]
			MIC: 2.0–8.0 mg/l; MFC: 12.5 mg/ml	Candida guilliermondii
			MIC: 2.5–7.5 mg/l; MFC: 10 mg/ml	Candida krusei
			MIC: 2.5–25 mg/l; MFC: 30 mg/ml	Candida parapsilosis
			MIC: 2.0–8.0 mg/l; MFC: 10 mg/ml	Candida tropicalis
13	Filamentous fungal infections	Pure xanthorrhizol	MIC: 2.0 µg/ml; MFC: 4.0 µg/ml	Aspergillus flavus	Inhibition the conidial germination	[49]
			MIC: 2.0 µg/ml; MFC: 4.0 µg/ml	Aspergillus fumigatus
			MIC: 2.0 µg/ml; MFC: 4.0 µg/ml	Aspergillus niger
			MIC: 4.0 µg/ml; MFC: 8.0 µg/ml	Fusarium oxysporum
			MIC: 1.0 µg/ml; MFC: 2.0 µg/ml	Rhizopus oryzae
			MIC: 1.0 µg/ml; MFC: 2.0 µg/ml	Trichophyton mentagrophytes
14	Skin and nail infections	Acetone extract and chloroform fractions	MIC:12.5–25.0 μg/mL	Epidermophyton sp.	Significant growth inhibition	[50]
15				Trichophyton rubrum
16	Penicilliosis	Acetone extract and chloroform fractions	MIC:12.5–25.0 μg/mL	Penicillium sp.	Significant growth inhibition	[50]
Anti-insecticidal
17	Agriculture pest	Pure xanthorrhizol	LD50 = 6.92–8.13 μmol/kg fr.wt	Spodoptera littoralis	Significant mortality of the larvae	[51]