Table 1.
Probability of Pesticide Exposure* |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Exposure Route | Substrate | Life Stage/Caste | Bumble Bees | Honey Bees |
Bodily Contact | air particles (dust or spray) | foraging worker | 4 | 4 |
non-foraging worker | 0 | 0 | ||
queen | 4 | 1 | ||
larva | 0 | 0 | ||
plant surface residues | foraging worker | 4 | 4 | |
non-foraging worker | 0 | 0 | ||
queen | 4 | 0 | ||
larva | 0 | 0 | ||
wax residues | foraging worker | 1 | 1 | |
non-foraging worker | 1 | 3 | ||
queen | 1 | 3 | ||
larva | 3 | 4 | ||
soil residues | foraging worker | 1 | 0 | |
non-foraging worker | 1 | 0 | ||
queen | 2 | 0 | ||
larva | 1 | 0 | ||
Oral | nectar | foraging worker | 4 | 4 |
non-foraging worker | 3 | 3 | ||
queen | 4 | 1 | ||
larva | 4 | 4 | ||
pollen | foraging worker | 4 | 1 | |
non-foraging worker | 3 | 3 | ||
queen | 4 | 1 | ||
larva | 4 | 4 | ||
water | foraging worker | 2 | 4 | |
non-foraging worker | 0 | 1 | ||
queen | 1 | 1 | ||
larva | 0 | 0 | ||
guttation fluid | foraging worker | 0 | 1 | |
non-foraging worker | 0 | 1 | ||
queen | 0 | 1 | ||
larva | 0 | 0 | ||
honey dew | forager | 1 | 4 | |
non-forager adult | 0 | 2 | ||
queen | 1 | 2 | ||
larva | 0 | 0 |
Rankings were assigned by bee experts based on the developmental, reproductive, and behavioral traits of each taxon.