Table 6.

Hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals for associations of ground coffee consumption (including espresso) with incident chronic liver disease, incident chronic liver disease or steatosis, death from CLD and incident hepatocellular carcinoma

	HR1	HR2	HR3	HR4
CLD
No coffee	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)
0.5 cups/d	0.59 (0.44–0.78)	0.58 (0.43–0.78)	0.60 (0.44–0.82)	0.64 (0.46–0.88)
1 cup/d	0.69 (0.58–0.82)	0.67 (0.56–0.79)	0.69 (0.58–0.83)	0.74 (0.61–0.90)
2 cups/d	0.66 (0.55–0.79)	0.61 (0.51–0.74)	0.64 (0.53–0.77)	0.65 (0.53–0.79)
3 cups/d	0.59 (0.46–0.75)	0.55 (0.42–0.70)	0.55 (0.43–0.72)	0.55 (0.42–0.73)
4 cups/d	0.59 (0.43–0.83)	0.55 (0.39–0.76)	0.53 (0.37–0.74)	0.52 (0.36–0.75)
≥ 5 cups/d	0.69 (0.50–0.95)	0.65 (0.47–0.90)	0.56 (0.40–0.78)	0.61 (0.43–0.87)
Any amount	0.65 (0.58–0.72)	0.61 (0.55–0.68)	0.62 (0.55–0.70)	0.64 (0.57–0.73)
Any amount (excluding cases within first 5 years)	0.63 (0.54–0.74)	0.60 (0.51–0.70)	0.62 (0.52–0.74)	0.66 (0.55–0.79)
CLD or steatosis
No coffee	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)
0.5 cups/d	0.54 (0.42–0.69)	0.53 (0.42–0.68)	0.58 (0.45–0.76)	0.61 (0.46–0.80)
1 cup/d	0.65 (0.57–0.75)	0.63 (0.55–0.73)	0.73 (0.63–0.85)	0.74 (0.63–0.87)
2 cups/d	0.62 (0.54–0.72)	0.59 (0.51–0.68)	0.66 (0.56–0.77)	0.65 (0.55–0.77)
3 cups/d	0.53 (0.42–0.65)	0.49 (0.40–0.61)	0.56 (0.45–0.70)	0.54 (0.43–0.68)
4 cups/d	0.58 (0.44–0.77)	0.55 (0.42–0.72)	0.55 (0.42–0.73)	0.54 (0.40–0.73)
≥ 5 cups/d	0.78 (0.61–0.99)	0.74 (0.58–0.95)	0.69 (0.54–0.89)	0.66 (0.50–0.87)
Any amount	0.62 (0.56–0.67)	0.59 (0.54–0.64)	0.65 (0.59–0.72)	0.64 (0.58–0.72)
Any amount (excluding cases within first 5 years)	0.59 (0.52–0.67)	0.57 (0.50–0.65)	0.63 (0.55–0.73)	0.62 (0.53–0.72)
HCC
No coffee	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)
0.5 cups/d	0.51 (0.12–2.12)	0.51 (0.12–2.09)	0.55 (0.13–2.29)	0.67 (0.16–2.81)
1 cup/d	0.68 (0.31–1.51)	0.64 (0.29–1.42)	0.68 (0.30–1.55)	0.84 (0.37–1.93)
2 cups/d	0.40 (0.14–1.12)	0.35 (0.13–0.99)	0.28 (0.08–0.90)	0.35 (0.11–1.15)
3 cups/d	0.38 (0.09–1.55)	0.33 (0.08–1.35)	0.33 (0.08–1.36)	0.41 (0.10–1.72)
4 cups/d	0.70 (0.17–2.87)	0.59 (0.14–2.45)	0.54 (0.13–2.27)	0.65 (0.15–2.71)
≥ 5 cups/d	1.12 (0.35–3.60)	0.99 (0.31–3.20)	0.84 (0.26–2.73)	1.06 (0.32–3.48)
Any amount	0.57 (0.34–0.97)	0.52 (0.30–0.88)	0.50 (0.28–0.88)	0.62 (0.35–1.11)
Any amount (excluding cases within first 5 years)	0.49 (0.25–0.99)	0.44 (0.22–0.88)	0.51 (0.24–1.08)	0.60 (0.27–1.30)
Death from CLD
No coffee	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)	1 (ref.)
0.5 cups/d	0.23 (0.06–0.95)	0.23 (0.06–0.92)	0.21 (0.05–0.86)	0.23 (0.06–0.96)
1 cup/d	0.26 (0.12–0.60)	0.25 (0.11–0.58)	0.22 (0.10–0.51)	0.27 (0.12–0.63)
2 cups/d	0.46 (0.24–0.88)	0.41 (0.22–0.80)	0.34 (0.17–0.65)	0.38 (0.19–0.75)
3 cups/d	0.26 (0.08–0.81)	0.23 (0.07–0.71)	0.17 (0.05–0.55)	0.22 (0.07–0.69)
4 cups/d	0.63 (0.23–1.71)	0.54 (0.20–1.47)	0.40 (0.15–1.09)	0.50 (0.18–1.36)
≥ 5 cups/d	1.35 (0.66–2.78)	1.15 (0.56–2.37)	0.70 (0.32–1.51)	0.85 (0.39–1.85)
Any amount	0.43 (0.29–0.63)	0.39 (0.26–0.58)	0.31 (0.21–0.47)	0.37 (0.24–0.56)
Any amount (excluding cases within first 5 years)	0.47 (0.29–0.76)	0.43 (0.26–0.70)	0.36 (0.22–0.61)	0.42 (0.25–0.71)

Abbreviations: CLD (chronic liver disease), HCC (hepatocellular carcinoma). ¹unadjusted, ²adjusted for age and sex, ³as for ² and additionally adjusted for deprivation (Townsend score), smoking status (never, current or previous), diabetes (yes or no), ethnicity (white or other ethnicity), alcohol frequency (less than weekly, once or twice a week, three or four times a week, and daily or almost daily) and BMI, ⁴as for ³ but adjusted for weekly alcohol units instead of alcohol frequency