Figure 5.

The cross-disciplinary interplay between optogenetics and other fields. Optogenetics could be applied to facilitate cell-based engineering (e.g., tissue engineering) or generate new biomaterials. By overcoming technical challenges, such as light and virus delivery, sensitivity, toxicity, and scaling up to large animals, optogenetic tools would be increasingly applied in the live animals. Advanced technologies, such as the two-photon optogenetic stimulation and light upconversion, will continue pushing optogenetic technology toward clinical settings in the healthcare sector.