Table 1.
Time-restricted eating: effect on cardiovascular disease risk factors
| Reference | Subjects | Diet length | Design and intervention groups | Body weight | Fat mas | Lean mass | Visceral fat mass | Blood pressure | Plasma lipids | Inflammation | Oxidative stress | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LDL | HDL | TG | |||||||||||
| 4-h time-restricted eating | |||||||||||||
| Carlson 2007 [10] | n = 15, MF | 8 weeks | RCT: Cross-over | 1. ∅ | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Normal wt | Isocaloric/eucaloric | 2. ∅ | |||||||||||
| No diabetes | 1. 4-h TRE (4–8pm) | ||||||||||||
| 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) | |||||||||||||
| Tinsley 2016 [11] | n = 18, MF | 8 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Normal wt | 1. 4-h TRE (4–8pm) + Resistance training | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | |||||||||
| No diabetes | |||||||||||||
| 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) + Resistance training | |||||||||||||
| Cienfuegos 2020 [5•] | n = 58, MF | 8 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ↓3%† | 1. ↓ † | 1. ↓ † | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ TNF-α, IL-6 | 1. ↓8-iso† |
| Obese | 1. 4-h TRE (3–7pm) | 2. ∅ | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ TNF-α, IL-6 | 2. ∅ | ||
| No diabetes | 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) | ||||||||||||
| 6-h time-restricted eating | |||||||||||||
| Sutton 2018 [12] | n = 8,M | 5 weeks | RCT: Cross-over | 1. ∅ | -- | -- | -- | 1. ↓ SBP† | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ↑† | 1. ∅ CRP IL-6 | 1. ↓ 8-iso† |
| Obese | Isocaloric/eucaloric | 2. ∅ | ↓ DBP† | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ CRP, IL-6 | 2. ∅ | |||||
| Prediabetes | 1. 6-h TRE (~8am–2pm) | 2. ∅ | |||||||||||
| 2. Control (12-h eating window) | |||||||||||||
| Cienfuegos 2020 [5•] | n = 58, MF | 8 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ↓ 3%† | 1. ↓ † | 1. ↓ † | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ TNF-α, IL-6 | 1. ↓8-iso† |
| Obese | 1. 6-h TRE (1–7pm) | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ TNF-α, IL-6 | 2. ∅ | ||
| No diabetes | 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) | ||||||||||||
| 8-h time-restricted eating | |||||||||||||
| Anton 2019 [13] | n = 10, MF | 4 weeks | Single-arm | 1. ↓ 2%* | -- | -- | -- | 1. ∅ | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Obese | 1. 8-h TRE (self-select) | ||||||||||||
| No diabetes | |||||||||||||
| Moro 2016 [14] | n = 34, M | 8 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ∅ | 1. ↓ † | 1. ∅ | -- | -- | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ↓† | 1. ∅ TNF-α, IL-6 | -- |
| Normal wt | Isocaloric/eucaloric | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. TNF-α, IL-6 | |||||
| No diabetes | 1. 8-h TRE (12–8pm) + Resistance training | ||||||||||||
| 2. Control (8am–8pm) + Resistance training | |||||||||||||
| Tinsley 2019 [15] | n = 40, F | 8 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ↑ 2%† | 1. ↓ † | 1. ↑ † | -- | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | -- | -- |
| Normal wt | 1. 8-h TRE (12–8pm) + Resistance training | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | |||||
| No diabetes | |||||||||||||
| 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) + Resistance training | |||||||||||||
| Gabel 2018 [6•] | n = 46, MF | 12 weeks | CT: Parallel-arm | 1. ↓ 3%† | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ↓ SBP† | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ Hcy | -- |
| Obese | 1. 8-h TRE (10am–6pm) | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | ∅ DBP | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ Hcy | |||
| No diabetes | 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) | 2. ∅ | |||||||||||
| Chow 2020 [16] | n = 20, MF | 12 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ↓ 4%† | 1. ∅ | 1. ↓ † | 1. ↓ † | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | -- | -- |
| Obese | 1. 8-h TRE (self-select) | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | ||||
| No diabetes | 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) | ||||||||||||
| Lowe 2020 [17] | n = 116, MF | 12 weeks | RCT: Parallel-arm | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. LM: ↓ † | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | 1. ∅ | -- | -- |
| Obese | 1. 8-h TRE (12–8pm) | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. LM: ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | 2. ∅ | ||||
| No diabetes | 2. Control (no meal timing restrictions) | ||||||||||||
| 9-h time-restricted eating (continued) | |||||||||||||
| Hutchison 2020 [18] | n = 15, M | 1 week | RT: Cross-over | 1. ↓ 1%* | -- | -- | -- | 1. ∅ | -- | -- | 1. ↓* | -- | -- |
| Obese | 1. 9-h TRE (8am–5pm) | 2. ↓ 1%* | 2. ∅ | 2. ↓* | |||||||||
| Prediabetes | 2. 9-h TRE (12–9pm) | ||||||||||||
| 10-h time-restricted eating | |||||||||||||
| Wilkinson 2020 [19] | n = 19, M | 12 weeks | Single-arm | 1. ↓ 3%* | 1. ↓* | -- | 1. ↓* | 1. ↓ SBP* | 1. ↓* | 1.∅ | 1.∅ | 1. ∅ CRP | -- |
| Overweight | 1. 10-h TRE (self-select) | ↓ DBP* | |||||||||||
| Prediabetes | |||||||||||||
| Gill & Panda 2015 [7••] | n = 8,M | 16 weeks | Single-arm | 1. ↓3%* | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Overweight | 1. 10-h TRE (self-select) | ||||||||||||
| No diabetes | |||||||||||||
∅
Non-significant change
*
P < 0.05, significantly different from baseline (within group effect)
†
P < 0.05, significantly different from the control or comparison group (between group effect). When control group present, only significant changes versus control reported
Abbreviations: 8-iso 8-isoprostane, A1c hemoglobin A1c, CRP C-reactive protein, CT controlled trial, DBP diastolic blood pressure, F female, Hcy homocysteine, HDL high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, LDL low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, LM lean mass, M male, RT randomized trial, RCT randomized controlled trial, SBP systolic blood pressure, TG triglycerides, TRE time-restricted eating (prescribed eating window shown in parentheses)