Table 3.
Meta-analysis results
| Variable | Number of studies | Effect-sizes | g | 95% CI | SE | t | p | Q |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall estimate | 37 | 150 | .55*** | .31, .79 | .12 | 4.66 | < .001 | 2884.68*** |
| Dependent variable | 1.73 | .09 | 2884.64*** | |||||
| Comprehension | 29 | 93 | .48** | .21, .75 | .13 | |||
| Memory | 14 | 57 | .72*** | .43, 1.01 | .14 | |||
| Participants | 1.00 | .32 | 2642.38*** | |||||
| Adults | 19 | 77 | .44* | .10, .77 | .17 | |||
| Non-adults | 18 | 73 | .67*** | .33, 1.01 | .17 | |||
| Modality | .66 | .52 | 2884.52*** | |||||
| Listen | 8 | 32 | .61*** | .32, .90 | .14 | |||
| Read | 34 | 118 | .54** | .30, .79 | .12 | |||
| Content | .05 | .96 | 2881.81*** | |||||
| Not controlled | 29 | 108 | .55*** | .31, .79 | .12 | |||
| Controlled | 8 | 42 | .57 | -.13, 1.27 | .34 | |||
| Difficulty | .13 | .90 | 2866.57*** | |||||
| Not controlled | 21 | 95 | .54*** | .27, .81 | .13 | |||
| Controlled | 15 | 55 | .57* | .13, 1.02 | .22 | |||
| Immediate/delayed | .07 | .95 | 2845.80*** | |||||
| Delayed | 4 | 14 | .53 | -.31, 1.36 | .41 | |||
| Immediate | 32 | 136 | .56*** | .30, .81 | .13 | |||
| Test format | 1.98 | .06 | 2835.17*** | |||||
| Verbal | 6 | 21 | .92*** | .59, 1.26 | .17 | |||
| Written | 31 | 129 | .49*** | .22, .76 | .13 |
Number of studies within a moderator variable may exceed N = 37 as some studies contained both levels of the moderator
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001