Table 6.
Summary of cognitive, behavioral, and neural outcomes.
| Study | Significant cognitive and behavioral changes | Significant neural changes | Follow-up | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Within groups | Between groups | Within groups | Between groups | ||
| DEMENTIA | |||||
| Surmeli et al. (2016) |
NF: ↑ orientation and recall MMSE subscales ↑ commission errors and reaction time variability TOVA subscales ↓ CGI |
N/A |
NF: ↓ in theta activity ↓ interhemispheric coherence |
N/A | N/A |
| Luijmes et al. (2016) | No significant changes | N/A | NR | N/A | N/A |
| Hohenfeld et al. (2017) |
NF: ↑ delayed recall of the visuospatial memory task of the VVM CG1: ↑ immediate recall condition visuospatial task of the VVM ↑ backward digit-span task of the WMS CG2: No significant differences |
NR | No significant changes |
NF>CG1: gray matter volume loss in the left parahipp. gyrus |
N/A |
| Hohenfeld et al. (2020) | NR |
Mixed model: Time effect for MoCA, VVM visuo-spatial memory test, and delayed recall Group differences for MoCA |
NR |
CG>NF: Activation in voxel clusters during task |
N/A |
| MCI | |||||
| Mendoza Laiz et al. (2018) |
NF1:
↑ visual perception ↑ spatial orientation ↑ receptive and expressive speech ↑ logical and immediate memory ↑ picture recognition and concepts NF2: ↑ picture recognition and concepts |
No significant changes | NR | NR | N/A |
| Jang et al. (2019) |
NF: ↑ CNSVS for composite and visual memory, cognitive flexibility, complex attention, reaction time, and executive function ↑ WM performance |
N/A |
NF: ↑ beta frequency |
N/A | N/A |
| Jirayucharoensak et al. (2019) |
NF:
↓ SWM_BER ↓ SWM_STR ↑ RVP_A' CG1 (game): SSP_SPAN |
time × treatment groups on SWM_BER, SWM_STR, RVP_A′, and SSP_SPAN aMCI>HC: SWM_BER, SWM_STR, DMS_PER HC>aMCI: PRM_COR, DMS_COR |
NR | NR | N/A |
| Lavy et al. (2019) | NR | N/A |
NF:
+ corr. between peak alpha and session number ↑ composite memory following training ↑ non-verbal and verbal recall task |
N/A |
Sustained: composite memory improvement |
| Li et al. (2020) | NR | N/A |
NF:
↑ connectivity in delta, theta, alpha and beta bands |
N/A | N/A |
| Marlats et al. (2020) |
NF:
↑ delayed recall of the RAVLT ↑ Forward digit span ↑ Mac Nair score ↓ GAS ↑ WAIS-IV |
N/A |
NF:
↑ overall theta and alpha power |
N/A |
Sustained: changes in theta and alpha power, and cognitive items Reduced: Forward digit span |
CAMCOG, Cambridge Cognitive Examination; CG, Control Group; CGI, Clinical Global Impression; CNSVS, Central Nervous System Vital Signs; DMS_COR, Delayed Matching to Sample Total Correct; DMS_PER, Delayed Matching to Sample Percent Correct; GAS, Goldberg Anxiety Scale; MMSE, Mini Mental Status Examination; N/A, Not Apply; NF, Neurofeedback; NR, Not Reported; PRM_COR, Pattern Recognition Memory Number Correct; RAVLT, Rey auditory verbal learning test; RVP_A', Rapid Visual Information Processing A prime; SSP_SPAN, Spatial Span Length; SWM_BER, Spatial Working Memory Between Error; SWM_STR, Spatial Working Memory Strategy; TOVA, Test of Variables of Attention; VVM, Visual and Verbal Memory Test; WAIS-IV, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Score-IV; WM, Working Memory task; WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; ↑, increased; ↓, decreased.