Figure 1.

Life cycle of Onchocerca lupi. Dogs act as definitive hosts of the parasite and female and male helminth adults develop in the top of the sclera of the eye, leading to conjunctivitis, scleral nodules, and even loss of eyesight and irreversible ocular damage. Cases have been reported among cats and humans with periocular pathology. Adult females residing in the eye release microfilariae into the skin of the head, interscapular, and lumbar regions of canids. Thereafter, microfilariae are ingested by intermediate hosts, presumptively black flies of the genus Simulium, in which larval development from L1 to L3 will occur. This figure was created using www.biorender.com.