Table 4.

Examples of bat associated viruses of public health concern, their hosts, excretion pathways, and factors affecting the virus's survival.

Virus family	Examples of bat associated virus of known public health concern	Associated bat reservoir host taxa	Excretion and transmission pathways of public health concern	Factors affecting survival of virus outside the host
Paramyxoviruses	Hendra virus (HeV)	Pteropus alectoa Pteropus conspicallatusa Eidolon helvumb	Pteropus alecto In order of decreasing risk—urine, blood, feces, nasal discharge, salivaa Urine-oronasalc saliva to intermediary species	Stable in urine for 4 days at 22°C at pH = 7d Inactivated <1 day at 37°C Increasingly inactivated by desiccation plus temperatures < or >22°C and pH < or > pH = 7d 19 h half-life in urine pH = 7d HeV and NiV broad tolerance to pH changesd
	Nipah virus (NiV)	Pteropus vampyruse Pteropus hypomelanus	Urine, saliva to intermediary species or, aerosol, saliva (food) directf	Stable in blood for 3 days at 20 or 30°Cg 18 h half-life in urine pH = 7d HeV and NiV broad tolerance to pH changesd
Filoviruses	Ebola Zaire virus	Hypsignathus monstrous Epomops franqueti Myonycteris torquata Micropteropus pusillus Mops condylurus Rousettus aegyptiacush	Saliva/Aerosol to wounds, mucous membranes, via fruiti, j	Stable in dried blood for 4–5 daysk Persistence in feces for 21 days post-infectionl
	Marburg virus	Rousettus aegyptiacusHypsignathus monstrousi		Stable for 5 days on a surfacem
Coronaviruses	SARS-CoV-1	Rhinolophus spp.n Scotophilus spp.o	Droplets, fomites, fecal-oralp	Stable for 5 days at 22–25°Cq
	MERS-CoV	Taphozus perforatus Rhinopoma hardwickii Pipistrellus kuhliir	Droplets, fomitesp	Stable for 2 days at 20°C and 40% RHs Inactivated at temperatures >30°C and high relative humiditys
	SARS-CoV-2	Rhinolophus spp.t	Droplets, fomites, fecal-oralp	Stable 5 days on metal, 5 days on paperu
	HCoV-229E & HCoV-NL63	Hipposiderid spp.l Perimyotis subflavusv	Droplets, fomitesp
Rhabdoviruses	Rabies virusu	American batsw	Bite/scratch associated with saliva	Stable in saliva for 24 h at 0–4°C Inactivated by heat and direct sun Bats dead >4 h not infectious
	European bat lyssa virus 1 & 2u	European batsw	Bite/scratch associated with saliva	Likely similar to rabies virus
	Lagos bat lyssavirusu	African batsw	Bite/scratch associated with saliva	Likely similar to rabies virus
	Duvenhage bat lyssavirusu	African batsw	Bite/scratch associated with saliva	Likely similar to rabies virus
	Australian bat lyssavirusu	Pteropus spp.Saccolaimus spp.	Bite/scratch associated with saliva	Likely similar to rabies virus

^aEdson et al. (36).

^bHayman et al. (37).

^cField (38).

^dFogarty et al. (39).

^eMoratelli and Calisher (7).

^fSayed et al. (40).

^gSmither et al. (41).

^hPourrut et al. (42).

ⁱMarkotter et al. (43).

^jPiercy et al. (44).

^kSinclair et al. (45).

^lSwanepoel et al. (46).

^mBelanov et al. (47).

ⁿBanerjee et al. (48).

^oChen et al. (49).

^pYe et al. (50).

^qChan et al. (51).

^rAnthony et al. (52).

^svan Doremalen et al. (53).

^tZheng (54).

^uWiktorczyk-Kapischke et al. (55).

^vHuynh et al. (56).

^wConstantine (57).