Table 3.

Definition of stigma forms of included studies.

Stigma Forms	Description	Examples from Included Studies
Public stigma	Endorsement of stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination against a group, that holds a specific characteristic. In surveys, the public is asked.	Stereotypes: e.g., “Healthcare workers who work in hospitals are likely to have COVID-19” [35]. Discrimination: e.g., “Healthcare workers should have some restrictions on their freedom [35]. Social exclusion as a component of discrimination: e.g., “I do not want to be around someone who works in a healthcare setting [35].
Associative stigma	Endorsement of stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination against a group which is transferred to relatives. In surveys, the public or affected persons are asked.	Discrimination: e.g., “Relatives being alienated because employment related to COVID-19” [36]. Social exclusion as a component of discrimination: e.g., “People would avoid my family members because of my job” [37]. Aggressive behavior/bullying as a component of discrimination: e.g., “Have verbally abused (…) or physically assaulted (…) my family members” [38].
Self-stigma (internalized)	Internalization, i.e., perception and transfer of stereotypes and devaluations to the own person. In surveys, affected persons are asked.	e.g., “Felt guilty about possibly exposing family, community and peers to infection” [38]; “feeling inferior to others due to occupation” [39].
Self-stigma (perceived)	Belief that “most people” will devalue and discriminate the stigmatized. In surveys, affected persons are asked.	Stereotypes: e.g., “People do not trust me and worry that I might infect them” [38]. Discrimination: e.g., „People feel uncomfortable when I am around” [40] Social exclusion as a component of discrimination: e.g., “Family members and friends have avoided contact with me because of my work?” [41]. Aggressive behavior/bullying as a component of discrimination: e.g., “People have verbally abused me or physically assaulted me” [38].
Self-stigma (anticipated)	Expectation of experiencing prejudice and discrimination due to a specific characteristic. In surveys, (potentially) affected persons are asked.	Fear, perceived consequences: “People would avoid me because of my job” [37].