Table 4.

Summary of included quantitative studies.

First Author Risk of Bias	Region Study Design Comments	Population	Stigmatization Form Assessment	Time of COVID-19 Pandemic
Chatterjee et al. [50] High risk	India CS Convenience sample	Physicians	Self-stigma (perceived) 1-item	Not specified
Chaudhary et al. [37] High risk	Pakistan CS # invited n. r.	Clinical oral HCWs Non-clinical oral HCWs from 10 different dental hospitals	Self-stigma (anticipated) Associative stigma 4-items	Not specified
Chen et al. [72] High risk	China Longitudinal # invited n. r.	Government/public institution/institutions/state-owned, enterprises, private enterprise staff or individual business	Self-stigma (perceived) 1-item	Baseline: rapid increase in COVID-19 cases and related deaths; follow-up: authorities relaxed lowdown
Chew et al. [39] High risk	Singapore Longitudinal Response: 49.2%	Medical residents in training (medical and surgical)	Self-stigma (anticipated) Self-stigma (internalized) 12 items (Healthcare Workers Stigma scale, HWSS)	Not specified
Dang et al. [36] High risk	Vietnam CS Convenience sample	HCWs, professional educators, white collar workers, students, others	Self-stigma (perceived) Self-stigma (anticipated) Associative stigma 4-items	Data collection one week after social distancing and lockdown was ordered by government
Do Duy et al. [40] High risk	Vietnam CS # invited n. r.	Clinicians, nurses, others	Self-stigma (perceived) Self-stigma (anticipated) Self-stigma (internalized) 12 items (adaption of Berger’s HIV Stigma Scale)	Lockdown of workplace because of COVID-19 outbreak-> all employees required to quarantine for 23 days. Data collection after quarantine
Dye et al. [57] High risk	Worldwide CS Convenience sample	n.r.	Self-stigma (anticipated) Associative stigma 1 item	Not specified
Elhadi et al. [59] High risk	Libya CS Convenience sample	HCWs (doctors and nurses) from 15 hospitals working during the outbreak period	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	Not specified (but during civil war)
Elhadi et al. [58] High risk	Libya CS Response: 88.7%	HCWs working in either surgery, internal medicine, intensive care, or emergency departments	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	Not specified (but during civil war)
Greene et al. [60] High risk	UK CS Convenience sample	Frontline health and social care workers working in a variety of healthcare roles in UK hospitals, nursing or care homes, and community settings	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	During COVID-19 pandemic (post-peak phase of the initial COVID-19 wave in the UK)
Juan et al. [51] High risk	China CS Response: 91.2%	hospital staff from five national COVID-19 designated hospitals (working in isolation ward, general ward)	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	Study period corresponds with the highest point of the COVID-19 epidemic in China
Khanal et al. [61,62] High risk	Nepal CS # invited n. r.	Nurses, doctors, paramedics, laboratory staff, pharmacists, public health professional currently working in COVID-19 management	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	During lockdown
Mohindra et al. [38] High risk	India CS Convenience sample	Doctors, nurses, hospital attendants, sanitation attendants, others working at the hospital	Self-stigma (perceived) Self-stigma (internalized) 19 items (adapted from Ebola epidemic questionnaire [74])	During lockdown
Monterossa-Castro et al. [63] High risk	Colombia CS # invited n. r.	General Practitioners	Self-stigma (perceived) (questions not described)	Responses to “the 24–30 March period, when the country was in a health emergency, in the initial phase of containment”
Ramaci et al. [64] High risk	Italy CS Convenience sample	Nurses and doctors	Self-stigma (perceived) Self-stigma (anticipated) Questionnaire adapted from HIV/AIDS/drug users questionnaire [75]	During national lockdown
Said et al. [70] High risk	Egypt CS (controlled) Convenience sample	Nurses from triage hospital and from a hospital with no triage or isolation	Self-stigma (perceived) Self-stigma (internalized) 2 items (from US National Centre for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 2020 and “MERS-CoV staff questionnaire”)	Not specified
Sharma et al. [65] High risk	USA CS Convenience sample	HCWs caring for COVID-19 patients (intensive care unit): physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, advanced practice providers	Self-stigma (perceived) Not reported	Not specified
Tan et al. [66] High risk	China CS Response: 50.9%	Members of the workforce who returned to work: workers, and technical staff, executives, sales and marketing, management and others>	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	Returning to work after lockdown and quarantine in Chongqing, during the peak of the COVID-19 epidemic when strict infection control was in place
Taylor et al. [35] High risk	Canada, USA CS # invited n. r.	Non-HCWs	Public stigma 8 items	Not specified
Uvais et al. [67,68] High risk	India CS Convenience sample	Physicians working in hospitals	Self-stigma (perceived) Self-stigma (anticipated) 13 items (Perceived Stigma Scale)	Not specified
Yadav et al. [69] High risk	India CS Response: 36.6%	HCWs	Self-stigma (perceived) Associative stigma Adapted Stigma assessment and reduction of impact (SARI) Stigma scale	Not specified
Zandifar et al. [71] High risk	Iran CS Response: 92%	HCWs engaged in the field of diagnostic and treatment of COVID-19 patients working in 9 general hospitals (physicians, nurses, technicians)	Self-stigma (perceived) 22-items (adopted from the HIV Stigma Scale)	Not specified
Zhu et al. [41] High risk	China CS Response: 77.1%	HCWs from hospital directly providing services to confirmed or suspected COVID-19 patients (physicians, nurses, technicians)	Self-stigma (perceived) 1 item	COVID-19 outbreak (2 weeks after the authority in Wuhan suspended all public transport)

# invited n. r. = number of invited participants was not reported, CS = cross-sectional study, longitudinal = longitudinal study design.