Table 2.

Selected clinical cases of disturbed emotional experience and behavior. See text for details.

Case	Basic Neuropathological Findings	Altered Behavior	Reference(s) No.
Phineas Gage	Bilateral damage of the frontal lobe, especially vmPFC, including the extensive damage to the white matter of the frontal lobe as well as the anterior parts of temporal lobe and amygdala (amygdala disconnected from the frontal lobes)	Careful and reliable person before the injury after the injury became emotionally unstable, impulsive, unpredictable, dishonest, capricious, reckless, having disturbed social skills and difficulties in making decisions (“no longer Gage”)	[270,271,272,273]
Patient S.M.	Bilateral calcification of the amygdala and periamygdaloid gyrus due to the Urbach–Wiethe disease	Patient S.M. had highly specialized impairment associated with the emotion of fear: she could not experience fear nor she could recognize facial expressions showing fear	[61,274,275]
Boy B.W.	Congenital ventromedial prefrontal cortex malformation involving Brodmann areas 11, 12, 25 and 32, clusters of dysplastic neurons in the left amygdaloid nucleus	Throughout his childhood, this boy with a relatively normal cognitive performance on standard neurophychological tests displayed incremental emotional instability, impulsivity, lack of empathy, hypersexuality, and had been manipulative and aggressive towards others, including his own parents	[276]
Patient B.	Bilateral destruction mainly of the insula due to Herpes simplex infection, but to a lesser extent also of the orbitofrontal and temporal cortex, anterior part of the ACC, hippocampus, EC, amygdala and a part of basal telencephalon	Severe global amnesia, dense impairment of retrograde memory and shallow mental content, but, except for taste and olfaction, all aspects of feeling were intact	[183]
Patient Roger	Bilateral damage to insula, ACC, and amygdala due to Herpes simplex infection	Major deficits included global amnesia, anosmia (the inability to percieve smell/odor), and ageusia (the inability to taste), while his experience of pain was intact, at times even excessive	[184]
Patient A.P.	Selective bilateral damage to the amygdala due to the Urbach–Wiethe disease	A pleasant, cheerful young woman notable for her tendency to be somewhat coquetting and disinhibited, e.g., she had been quick to become friendly with examiners, and had often made mildly innapropriate sexual remarks. She had also suffered from a significant defect in visual, nonverbal memory, executive control manifesting with innapropriate social behaviors, and had deficits on tests of category formation, cognitive flexibility, and abstract reasoning	[277,278]