Table 1.

Biotechnological interventions to increase disease resistance in cereals.

Immunity Level of Intervention	Biotechnological Intervention	Gene	Species	Enhanced Resistance to	References
Pathogen sensing	Interspecies/interfamily transfer of known PRRs	AtEFR	Wheat	Pseudomonas syringae pv. oryzae	[79]
		AtEFR	Rice	Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae-derived elf18	[80]
		AtEFR	Rice	Acidovorax avenae subsp. avenae	[81]
		OsXa21	Rice	Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae	[82]
		TaRLK1 and TaRLK2	Wheat	Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici	[83]
		HvLEMK1	Barely, Wheat	Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei; Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici	[84]
		HvLecRK-V	Wheat	Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici	[85]
	Production of chimeric receptor kinases and R genes	AtEFR-OsXa21	Rice	Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato; Agrobacterium tumefaciens; Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae	[86,87]
		OsXa21-OsCEPiP	Rice	Magnaporthe oryzae	[88]
Effector detection	Deletion of effector binding sites	Os11N3/OsSWEET14	Rice	Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae	[89]
	Addition of effector binding sites	OsXa27	Rice	Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae	[90]
Immune signaling	Altered expression of signaling components	AtNPR1	Rice	Broad-spectrum of pathogens	[91]
	Altered expression of transcription factors	TaPIMP1	Wheat	Bipolaris sorokiniana	[92]
		OsIPA1/OsSPL14	Rice	Magnaporthe oryzae	[93]
R genes	Transfer of APR alleles	TaLr34	Barely, Rice, Sorghum Maize, Durum wheat	Multiple biotrophic pathogens	[94,95,96,97,98]
		TaLr67	Barely	Multiple rusts and powdery mildew	[99]