Table 1.

Relevant technologies to future developments of cultured meat.

Technology	Relevance	Main Finding	Reference
Bovine embryonic stem cells	Embryonic stem cells that are derived from livestock animals can be transformed into any cell type.	First report on the derivation of stable bovine embryonic stem cells in a culture containing fibroblast growth factor 2 and an inhibitor of Wnt signaling pathways.	[18]
Pluripotent 1 stem cells derived from adult fibroblasts (iPSC)	Ethical issues on the use of embryonic stem cells may be circumvented.	Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic or adult fibroblasts by the introduction of four transcription factors (OCT3/4, Sox2, c-Myc and Klf4). Another transcription factor commonly associated with pluripotency, namely NANOG, was dispensable.	[19]
Skeletal muscles derived from porcine iPSC	Generation of livestock tissues from iPSC.	Contractile porcine myotubes were produced through a coordinated application of CHIR 99021 (inhibits GSK3B enzyme), 5-aza-cytidine (DNA methylation inhibitor) and ectotopically expressed MYOD1.	[20]
Co-culture of IMP and MSC derived from chicken	Co-culture system is required to produce a complex tissue resembling conventional meat.	IMP and MSC were successfully co-cultured using a transwell chamber. In proliferative stage, MSCs accelerated the differentiation of IMPs, which resulted in a higher fat content in co-cultured IMPs than single-cultured ones. Opposite effect was observed in non-proliferative stage.	[21]
Isolation of bovine PA and its adipogenic differentiation	Method for culturing adipocytes in vitro allows for future development of cultured meat that contains fat components.	Descriptions of protocols for isolating pre-adipocyte (multipotent stem cell) from primary bovine adipose tissue and for their subsequent differentiation in 2D culture media or on 3D alginate scaffolds. Plant- and animal-based free fatty acids used in the differentiation process.	[22]

¹ Pluripotent stem cells refer to those that can be transformed into any type of cell, as opposed to multipotent stem cells that can only be differentiated into specific cell types. iPSC, induced pluripotent stem cells; GSK3B, glycogen synthase kinase 3-β; MSC, muscle satellite cells; IMP, intramuscular pre-adipocyte; PA, pre-adipocyte.