Table 4.

Plant-based vaccines against respiratory disease.

Vaccine Candidate	Plant	Antigen	Animal	Route of Inoculation/Doses	Degree of Protection	Immunological Data	Reference
Bursal disease virus	Tobacco	VP2/extracted	Embryonated eggs of White Leghorn chickens	Intramuscular/12 μg of VP2 and equal volume of Freund’s adjuvant and 1% total volume of Tween 40	Plant-derived VP2 elicited an antibody response with neutralizing activity	VP2 produced in plants can elicit an appropriate immune response in chickens	[85]
Respiratory syncytial virus	Tomato	F-gene/extracted	BALB/c mice	Oral immunization/each mouse was given 5–7 g of ripe tomato fruit containing recombinant RSV-F protein and consumed 3–4 g.	Transgenic-fruit-derived RSV-F antigen primed a mixed type 1–2 T-helper cell immune response and further that this RSV-boost-induced response showed some bias towards the Th1-type	Ripe transgenic tomato administered to mice orally that led to the elevation of mucosal and serum RSV-F specific antibodies	[100]
Streptococcus pneumoniae	Tobacco	Serotype 3 capsular polysaccharide/extracted	MF1 female mice	Intraperitonea l/2 µg plant-derived pneumococcal polysaccharide per mouse in 67 µL PBS and 33 µL Inject alum adjuvant (Pierce, Rockford, IL, USA)	None of the fifteen animals given wild-type extract were alive ten days after the challenge, whereas eight of the fourteen immunized with transgenic extract survived	Immunized mice had significantly elevated levels of serum anti-pneumococcal polysaccharide antibodies.	[103]
Bacillus anthracis	Tobacco, Tomato, and Mustard	Protective antigen (PA)/extracted	BALB/c mice	Intraperitoneal/Protein extracted from tomato leaves was mixed with complete Freund’s adjuvant (for the first dose) and incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (for subsequent doses) in a ratio of 1:1.	The PA expressed in nuclear transgenic tomato plants was able to generate an antibody-mediated immune response.	A specific mucosal immune response was observed	[112,113]
Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Potato, Tobacco, Carrot, Arabidopsis, and Lettuce	Ag85B, ESAT-6, MPT64, MPT83, Acr, Ag85B, ESAT-6 fused to LTB, CFP10, ESAT-6, Mtb72F, and ESAT-6 fused to CTB/extracted	C57BL/6 mice, BALB/c mice, Female ICR mice, Seryi velikan strain rabbits.	Orally, intranasal, intraperitoneal/BCG group were fed orally with 1.8 × 107 CFU BCG in 100 μL saline per mouse. The mice of the combined-plant vaccine group were fed with 1ml of the concentrated transgenic potato extract. Mice were immunized subcutaneously with 100 μL of BCG administered at the base of the tail or with 10 μg TB-RICs preparation (in 30 μL) intranasal, under isoflurane anesthesia. Test animals were provided with 3 g of the mix (92.6 μg of plant-made LTB-ESAT-6). Feed treatments were given on days 0, 7, 14, and 28.	Generating antigen-specific, Th1 response	Antigens expression	[118,119,120,121,122,123]
Asthma	Lupin	SSA-lupin/extracted	BALB/c mice	Intraperitoneal/50 μg of SSA or OVA in alum (1 mg/mL) dissolved in PBS (final volume 200 μL). On days 14 and 16. B, Lupin, and SSA-lupin induced systemic sensitization and DTH responses.	GM plant-based vaccine can promote a protective immune response and attenuate experimental asthma	Consumption of SSA-lupin promoted the elevation of an Ag-specific IgG2a Ab response through CD4+CD45RBlow T Cell and IFN-γ -dependent mechanism	[124]
Bronchial hyper-responsiveness	Rice	Der p 1/purified	BALB/c mice	Orally vaccinated by feeding 6–8-week-old female BALB/c mice were orally vaccinated by feeding 0.5 or 5 mg purified recombinant Der P1 dissolved in PBS on day 1. Mice were given four intraperitoneal injections of 2 μg of recombinant Der p 1 adsorbed to alum adjuvant.	Prophylactic efficacy of oral vaccination with Tg rice seeds accumulated Der p 1 (45–145) in a mouse model of asthma, reducing allergic airway inflammation and reduced BHR.	Oral administration of the Tg rice seeds to mice inhibits the allergen-specific IgE responses and allergen-specific T helper 2 (Th2) cytokine synthesis (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13)	[125]