Table 1.

Anesthetics and adjuvants in early brain injury (EBI) after SAH in experimental studies.

References	Anesthetic Agent/Adjuvants	Species	Model	Pathway	Effects
[8]	Isoflurane	Mice	Endovascular perforation	SphK, S1P1 ↑	Reduced brain water content, decreased neuronal apoptosis, improved neurological score.
[9]	Isoflurane	Mice	Endovascular perforation	SphK, S1P1 ↑	Improved neurological score, brain edema, BBB permeability and prevented the decrease in expressions of tight junction (occludin, JAM-A and claudin-5) and adherens junction (VE- cadherin) proteins.
[10]	Isoflurane	Mice	Endovascular perforation	SphK, S1P1 ↑	Improved neurological score, brain edema, BBB permeability and decreased neuroinflammation (↓ MPO, iba-1, IL-1β, TNF-α, P-selectin, ICAM-1, p-JNK and COX-2).
[12]	Sevoflurane	Mice	Endovascular perforation	-	Improved neurological scores, reduced cerebral edema and apoptosis.
[13]	Sevoflurane/Isoflurane	Mice	Endovascular perforation	SphK 1 ↑, COX-2 ↓, Caspase -3 ↓	Both anesthetics attenuated cerebral edema, cell death, improved neurobehavioral function.
[14]	Sevoflurane/Propofol	Rat	Endovascular perforation	Stabilizing Beta Catenin	Sevoflurane attenuated cerebral edema.
[15]	Argon	Rat	Endovascular perforation	HIF-1 α ↑, HO-1 ↑	Reduced mortality and functional outcome improved as measured by the weight of the animals.
[16]	Xenon	Rat	Endovascular perforation	-	Hippocampal protection, reduction in microglial activity.
[17]	Xenon	Rat	Endovascular perforation	-	reduced hematoma volume, prevented neuronal cell death, improved neurological function and decreased the mortality and morbidity.
[18]	Propofol	Rat	Endovascular perforation	Nrf2 ↑, NF-kB ↓, AQP4 ↓, MMP-9 ↓, COX-2	Reduces cerebral edema, BBB permeability, improves Neuroscore.
[19]	Propofol	Rat	Endovascular perforation	↑ PI3K/Akt	Reduces cerebral edema, BBB permeability, improves Neuroscore.
[21]	Dexmedetomidine	Rat	Endovascular perforation	ERK ↑	Reduced cerebral edema, BBB permeability, improved neuroscore.
[22]	Dexmedetomidine	Rat	Endovascular perforation	TLR4/ NF-kB ↓, NLRP3 ↓	Reduced cerebral edema, BBB permeability, neuronal apoptosis, inhibits neuroinflammation and improves neuroscore.
[23]	Salvinorin A	Rat	Endovascular perforation	↑ PI3K/Akt	Attenuated cerebral edema and neuronal apoptosis.

↑ = Activation/Increase/elevation, ↓ = Inhibition/blockade/decrease, EBI = early brain injury, BBB = blood–brain barrier, OGD = oxygen glucose deprivation, SphK = Sphingosine kinase, S1P1 = Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor, MPO = myeloperoxidase, iba-1 = Ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule-1, p-JNK = phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase, IL-1β = interleukin-1 beta, TNF-α = tumor necrosis factor-alpha, ICAM-1 = intercellular adhesion molecule-1, COX-2 = cyclooxygenase-2, HIF-1 = hypoxia inducible factor, Nrf2 = Nuclearfactorerythroid-relatedfactor2, NF-kB = Nuclear factor-kappa B, AQP4 = aquaporin, MMP-9 = matrix metalloproteinase, ERK = extracellular signal—regulated kinase, PI3K/Akt = Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt, TLR4 = Toll-like receptor 4, NLRP3 = nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3.