Table 2.

Autophagy Regulating Effect of Antiparasitic Agents

Drug	Mechanism	Reference
Autophagy Inducer
Dihydroartemisinin	Induces autophagy characterized by LC-II upregulation in leukemia cells	[43]
	Induces autophagy via phosphorylation of Bcl-2 at Ser 70, and also functions as an mTOR inhibitor in Hela cells	[32]
	Induces autophagy via promoting the DAPK1-induced phosphorylation of Beclin-1	[48]
ART dimer SM1044	Promotes the de novo synthesis of ceramide, thus promoting the CaMKK2-AMPK-ULK1 pathway	[50]
Flubendazole	Upregulates the LC-II level; disrupts normal microtubule, and thus interferes with the lysosomal function and results in mTOR’s dislocation from the lysosome membrane induced acetylation of microtubule activates JNK and results in phosphorylation of Bcl-2	[56]
	Blocks the JNK/STAT3 pathway	[57]
	Binds with EVA1A at Thr113, thus induces EVA1A-mediated autophagy	[58]
Ivermectin	Induces ATP-release	[61]
	Induces autophagy via inhibiting P21-activated kinase 1 and the blockage of the whole PAK1/Akt/mTOR pathway62	[62]
Autophagy inhibitor
Chloroquine	Impairs the autophagosome bulk’s degradation and blocks autophagosome and lysosome fusion	[67]
Hydroxychloroquine, HCQ dimer DC611 and Lys05	Inhibits autophagy via PPT1-mediated lysosome inhibition	[68]
Mefloquine	Downregulates LAMP1/2 and inhibits RAB5/7	[72]
Nitazoxanide	Induces cell cycle arrest and upregulate ING by blocking the lysosome acidification and autolysosome maturation	[73]