Table 3.

Mitochondria Disrupting Effect of Antiparasitic Agents

Drug	Mechanism	Reference
Chloroquine	Induces mitochondrial damage, results in mitochondrial membrane depolarization and the release of cytochrome c; inhibits cytochrome c oxidase activity, thus increases the ROS level	[83]
Niclosamide	Disturbs mitochondrial respiration and induces mitochondrial depolarization, thus promotes glycolysis and decreases glycolytic capacity and reserve	[86]
	Upregulates pyruvate influx into mitochondria and lowers the pentose phosphate pathway and phosphoglycerate activity dehydrogenase pathway	[87]
	Triggers intracellular calcium flux via mitochondrial uncoupling, thus disturbs the arachidonic acid metabolism in a p53 deficit-dependent manner	[88]
	Induces apoptosis via the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway	[89]
Ivermectin	Induces mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress via inhibiting the Akt/mTOR pathway	[90]
	Induces mitochondrial damage leads to increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, which leads to cytoplasm c release and caspase-mediated cancer cell apoptosis	[93]
Nitazoxanide/RM4819	Both NTZ and RM4819 exhibit mitochondria uncoupling effect, only RM4819 shows mitochondria complex III inhibitory effect	[94,95]