Figure 2.

Downstream effects of microbe-derived metabolites and their roles in CVDs

SCFA = short chain fatty acids; MUC2 = mucin 2; OLFR78 = olfactory receptor 78; GPR41 = G-protein–coupled receptors 41; GPR43 = G-protein–coupled receptors 43; DCA = deoxycholic acid; UDCA = ursodeoxycholic acid; LCA = lithocholic acid; TGR5 = takeda G-protein–coupled receptor 5; FXR = farnesoid X receptor; VDR = vitamin D receptor; CutC/D = choline-TMA lyase system; CntA/B and YeaW/X = carnitine Rieske-type oxygenase/reductase system; TMA = trimethylamine; FMOs = flavin-containing monooxygenases; TMAO = trimethylamine-N-oxide; MAPK/NF-κB = mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-kappa B; SIRT3-SOD2-mtROS = sirtuin-3-superoxide dismutase 2-mitochondrial reactive oxygen species; Cyp7a1 = Cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase; CD36 = cluster of differentiation 36; SR-A1 = scavenger receptor A1; COX2 = cyclooxygenase 2; IL = interleukin; ICAM1 = intercellular adhesion molecule 1; NLRP3 = nucleotide binding oligomerization domain–like receptor family pyrin domain-containing-3.