Fig. 1. Effects of flupyradifurone (FPF) and dimethoate (DIM) on bee survival.

We have indicated the end of the 10-day standard test period³⁶ with a dashed line to facilitate comparison between the standard chronic risk assessment trial (10-day) and our longer term experiment. Only the highest FPF treatment (730.5 ± 28.4 ng/bee/day, mean ± Standard Error of the Mean, SEM) caused a significant effect before 10 days (p < 0.0001), while the longer exposure allowed us to determine the significant effects of lower doses (11.1 ± 0.3 ng FPF/bee/day (mean ± SEM): p < 0.01; 100.6 ± 2.2: p < 0.001; 292.5 ± 8.1; p < 0.0001; 730.5 ± 28.4: p < 0.0001; Supplementary Table 3). In the legend, asterisks indicate the significant differences between the respective FPF dose and control in the long term (Kaplan-Meier; n = 2494; **p = 0.01, ****p = 0.0001). Different colours indicate different treatments. Further survival details are in Supplementary Tables 2–4.