Table 2.
Multicompound studies aimed at investigating the effect of combined sewer overflows on emerging contaminants in the environment
| Location | Sampling strategy | Target emerging contaminants for quantitative analysis | Analysis method | Findings | Ref. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mode | Sites | Frequency | Separation | Detection | ||||
| River Thames estuary, UK. | Grab | 2 | Daily on weekdays over 6-weeks. Composite influent and effluent wastewater samples also sampled to identify potential CSO markers. | Amitriptyline, antipyrine, bezafibrate, benzoylecgonine, caffeine, carbamazepine, chloramphenicol, clofibric acid, cocaine, dextromethorphan, diazepam, diclofenac, fluoxetine, furosemide, ketamine, ketoprofen, MDMA, mephedrone, metoprolol, nifedipine, nimesulide, nortriptyline, propranolol, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, sulfaphenazole, sulfapyridine, temazepam, tramadol, trimethoprim, warfarin. | UPLC C18 | Orbitrap HRMS | Short-term increase of caffeine, cocaine and benzoylecgonine concentration (within an order of magnitude) following CSO events. | A |
| Aire and Calder catchments, UK. | Grab | 7 | Monthly over 18-months. Included sampling of wastewater effluents and two CSO discharges. | Diclofenac, erythromycin, ibuprofen, mefenamic acid, propranolol. | HPLC C18 | Q-TOF MS/MS | Variability in concentrations observed but no correlation made to rainfall or CSO events. | B |
| Körsch catchment, Germany. | Grab | 5 | Nine samples collected during dry weather and following four CSO discharges. Influent wastewater and CSO discharges also sampled using composite samplers. | Acesulfame, atenolol, bezafibrate, caffeine, carbamazepine, diatrizoate, diclofenac, galaxolide, ibuprofen, iohexol, iomeprol, iopamidol, iopromide, metoprolol, naproxen, propranolol, sulfamethoxazole, sucralose, tonalide, triclosan. | HPLC | LIT MS/MS | Diclofenac exceeded its AA-EQS (100 ng L−1) downstream of the CSO discharge (but upstream of the WTP effluent discharge) during wet weather in 25% of samples. The AA-EQS was not exceeded during dry weather. Diclofenac concentrations downstream of the CSO and WTP effluent discharges were lower during wet weather. However, all samples here exceeded the AA-EQS. | C |
| Jung-rang creek, South Korea. | Grab | 5 | Once during dry weather and wet weather conditions. Wet weather samples collected following 24.5 mm of rainfall during 11 h after 6 days without rainfall. | Acesulfame, atenolol, benzophenone, caffeine, carbamazepine, diclofenac, diltiazem, diphenhydramine, estrone, ibuprofen, iohexol, iopamidol, iopromide, gemfibrozil, meprobamate, naproxen, primidone, propylparaben, sucralose, sulfamethoxazole, triclocarban, triclosan. | UPLC C18 | QQQ | 34%a lower cumulative concentration under wet weather conditions. However, individual compound concentrations not reported. | D |
| WTP, Burlington, US. | 24h flow-weighted composites | 3 | Influent (n = 18) and effluent (n = 22), and CSOs (n = 10) sampled over 13 months. | 3β-coprostanol, 11-ketotestosterone, 17β-estradiol, β-sitosterol, androstenedione, benzophenone, bisphenol-A, caffeine, cholesterol, cis-androsterone, dihydrotestosterone, epi-testosterone, estriol, estrone, galaxolide, testosterone, tri(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate, triclosan. | GC low polarity proprietary phase | QQQ | CSO represent 10% of wastewater discharges but account for 40-90% of released loads of emerging contaminant with > 90% WTP removal. | E |
| Jamaica Bay, US. | Grab | 24 | Maximum of three times during dry weather conditions. Seven further samples collected from various locations following storm. | Antipyrine, caffeine, carbamazepine, cimetidine, codeine, cotinine, diltiazem, fenofibrate, fluoxetine, hydrocodone, ketoprofen, metformin, nicotine, nifedipine, paracetamol, paraxanthine, ranitidine, salbutamol, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, warfarin. | HPLC C18 | Q-TOF MS/MS | Following the storm event, concentrations of nicotine and paracetamol were similar or greater than dry weather concentrations. | F |
A, Munro et al. 2019; B, Kay et al. 2017; C, Launay et al. 2016; D, Ryu et al. 2014; E, Phillips et al. 2012; F, Benotti and Brownawell 2007
Key: CSO, combined sewer overflows; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; HRMS, LIT MS/MS, linear ion trap mass spectrometer; high-resolution mass spectrometry; MDMA, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine; QQQ, triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer; Q-TOF MS/MS, quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometer; UPLC, ultra-performance liquid chromatography
aCummulative concentration includes several pesticides and flame retardant