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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Jun 30.
Published in final edited form as: Environ Res. 2020 Jan 31;183:109208. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109208

Table 3.

Ln-transformed urine and blood concentrations of trace elements in NHANES pregnant and non-pregnant women, aged 15–44 years.

Analyte Pregnancy Status N NHANES Years % At/Above LOD P90 Geometric Mean (95% CI) Pr > F Geometric Mean (95% CI) Adjusted Pr > F Adjusted
Antimony, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 404 1999–2016 82.4 .230 .079 (.070–.089) .009 .081 (.072–.090) .012
Not Pregnant 3174 1999–2016 77.1 .199 .067 (.063–070) .069 (.065–.073)
Antimony, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 404 1999–2016 82.4 .179 .078 (.069–.087) .183 .078 (.069–.087) .033
Not Pregnant 3173 1999–2016 77.1 .187 .072 (.069–075) .068 (.066–.071)
Total Arsenic, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 259 2003–2016 99.0 40.3 8.77 (7.14–10.8) .066 10.1 (8.24–12.4) .179
Not Pregnant 2502 2003–2016 98.6 32.3 7.21 (6.69–7.78) 8.78 (8.10–9.51)
Total Arsenic, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 259 2003–2016 99.0 39.6 9.10 (7.43–11.1) .226 10.3 (8.47–12.4) .229
Not Pregnant 2501 2003–2016 98.6 30.9 7.98 (7.51–8.48) 9.11 (8.59–9.67)
 Arsenic (V) acid, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 3.7 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2518 2003–2016 3.1 * * * * *
 Arsenic (V) acid, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 3.7 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2517 2003–2016 3.1 * * * * *
 Arsenobetaine, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 58.8 17.2 1.68 (1.23–2.28) .985 1.94 (1.45–2.59) .869
Not Pregnant 2521 2003–2016 57.0 18.1 1.67 (1.52–1.84) 1.99 (1.79–2.22)
 Arsenobetaine, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 58.8 23.0 1.71 (1.22–2.40) .703 1.94 (1.42–2.64) .714
Not Pregnant 2520 2003–2016 57.0 15.8 1.84 (1.66–2.03) 2.06 (1.86–2.28)
 Arsenocholine, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 2.7 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2521 2003–2016 6.6 * * * * *
 Arsenocholine, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 2.7 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2520 2003–2016 6.6 * * * * *
 Arsenous (III) acid, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 13.9 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2521 2003–2016 22.3 * * * * *
 Arsenous (III) acid, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 13.9 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2520 2003–2016 22.3 * * * * *
 Dimethylarsinic acid, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 87.4 11.8 4.45 (3.8–5.21) < .001 5.05 (4.29–5.95) .005
Not Pregnant 2521 2003–2016 79.8 9.56 3.35 (3.19–3.52) 3.95 (3.73–4.19)
 Dimethylarsinic acid, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 87.4 11.3 4.55 (3.90–5.31) .010 5.04 (4.35–5.84) .008
Not Pregnant 2520 2003–2016 79.8 8.92 3.69 (3.55–3.84) 4.09 (3.92–4.26)
 Inorganic-related Arsenic Species, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 n/a 14.5 6.89 (6.10–7.79) .001 7.52 (6.63–8.53) .007
Not Pregnant 2518 2003–2016 n/a 12.6 5.63 (5.42–5.85) 6.30 (6.01–6.59)
 Inorganic-related Arsenic Species, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 n/a 16.3 7.05 (6.12–8.12) .083 7.51 (6.56–8.59) .047
Not Pregnant 2517 2003–2016 n/a 14.8 6.20 (5.99–6.42) 6.51 (6.28–6.75)
 Monomethylarsonic acid, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 260 2003–2016 26.5 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2521 2003–2016 40.5 1.42 .649 (.627–672) .660 (.630–.691)
 Monomethylarsonic acid, urine (ug/g creatinine Pregnant 260 2003–2016 26.5 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 2520 2003–2016 40.5 1.94 .715 (.685–.746) .683 (.653–.715)
 Trimethylarsine Oxide, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 224 2003–2016 14.6 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 1855 2003–2016 26.9 * * * * *
 Trimethylarsine Oxide, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 224 2003–2016 14.6 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 1855 2003–2016 26.9 * * * * *
Barium, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 402 1999–2016 98.1 7.35 2.01 (1.71–2.36) < .001 1.90 (1.61–2.26) < .001
Not Pregnant 3170 1999–2016 98.3 4.53 1.27 (1.21–1.34) 1.24 (1.18–1.30)
Barium, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 402 1999–2016 98.1 7.43 2.00 (1.69–2.36) < .001 1.86 (1.57–2.19) < .001
Not Pregnant 3169 1999–2016 98.3 4.09 1.37 (1.31–1.44) 1.23 (1.17–1.29)
Cadmium, blood (mg/L) Pregnant 1282 1999–2016 66.1 .602 .265 (.247–.284) < .001 .332 (.314–.351) .765
Not Pregnant 8778 1999–2016 75.9 1.07 .334 (.325–343) .335 (.328–.343)
Cadmium, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 403 1999–2016 83.4 .511 .151 (.130–.174) .138 .188 (.162–.218) .728
Not Pregnant 3169 1999–2016 83.8 .627 .169 (.159–.180) .183 (.173–.193)
Cadmium, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 403 1999–2016 83.4 .323 .150 (.135–.167) < .001 .183 (.165–.203) .857
Not Pregnant 3168 1999–2016 83.8 .495 .182 (.174–.191) .181 (.174–.189)
Cesium, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 99.8 10.2 4.79 (4.27–5.37) .003 4.99 (4.45–5.60) .009
Not Pregnant 3195 1999–2016 99.9 9.71 4.01 (3.84–4.20) 4.24 (4.06–4.42)
Cesium, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 99.8 7.79 4.75 (4.44–5.07) .007 4.84 (4.55–5.14) < .001
Not Pregnant 3194 1999–2016 99.9 7.65 4.32 (4.23–4.42) 4.20 (4.11–4.30)
Cobalt, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 99.4 1.77 .600 (.529–.681) < .001 .647 (.569–.735) < .001
Not Pregnant 3195 1999–2016 98.9 1.19 .407 (0.39–.424) .451 (.433–0.47)
Cobalt, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 99.4 1.52 .595 (.542–.654) < .001 .627 (.573–.685) < .001
Not Pregnant 3194 1999–2016 98.9 1.03 .438 (.425–.451) .447 (.433–.461)
Copper, Serum (ug/dL) Pregnant 52 2011–2016 100.0 270 198 (184–213) < .001 191 (178–205) < .001
Not Pregnant 971 2011–2016 100.0 179 128 (125–132) 127 (124–130)
Iodine, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 413 2001–2016 100.0 360 137 (118–159) .033 138 (119–160) .127
Not Pregnant 3622 2001–2016 100.0 374 115 (110–121) 121 (116–127)
Iodine, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 413 2001–2016 100.0 438 152 (134–172) .019 154 (137–173) .003
Not Pregnant 3621 2001–2016 100.0 328 131 (126–135) 127 (122–132)
Lead, blood (ug/dL) Pregnant 1282 1999–2016 96.2 1.30 .624 (.576–.676) < .001 .717 (.666–.771) .007
Not Pregnant 8778 1999–2016 98.8 1.61 .781 (.762–.800) .797 (.777–.818)
Lead, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 94.9 1.27 .517 (.443–.604) < .001 .600 (.518–.695) < .001
Not Pregnant 3195 1999–2016 93.6 1.14 .357 (0.34–.376) .400 (.380–.422)
Lead, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 94.9 1.32 .512 (.452–.581) < .001 .582 (.519–.651) < .001
Not Pregnant 3194 1999–2016 93.6 .930 .385 (.372–.398) .397 (.381–.413)
Mercury (total), blood (ug/L) Pregnant 1280 1999–2016 86.4 2.2 .704 (.638–.776) .007 .787 (.716–.866) .048
Not Pregnant 8638 1999–2016 88.5 3.09 .804 (.769–0.84) .863 (.829–.899)
 Mercury (inorganic), Blood (ug/L) Pregnant 98 2011–2016 31.1 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 1940 2011–2016 23.5 * * * * *
 Mercury (ethyl), Blood (ug/L) Pregnant 98 2011–2016 1.0 * * * * *
Not Pregnant 1940 2011–2016 2.0 * * * * *
 Mercury (methyl), Blood (ug/L) Pregnant 98 2011–2016 75.7 2.03 .365 (0.26–.511) .310 .408 C.286–.582) .226
Not Pregnant 1940 2011–2016 85.8 2.58 .440 C396–.489) .510 (.473–.549)
Mercury (inorganic), urine (ug/L) Pregnant 764 1999–2016 88.1 2.44 .491 (.414–.582) .043 .534 (.450–.634) .013
Not Pregnant 4557 1999–2016 86.4 2.08 .411 (.387–.437) .425 (.402–.449)
Mercury (inorganic), urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 511 1999–2016 88.1 1.85 .459 (.380–.555) .396 .485 (.402–.586) .068
Not Pregnant 3583 1999–2016 86.4 1.72 .422 (.401–.445) .403 (.384–.424)
Molybdenum, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 405 1999–2016 100.0 125 49.3 (43.1–56.3) < .001 50.3 (43.6–58.0) .003
Not Pregnant 3176 1999–2016 100.0 104 36.1 (34.4–37.9) 39.8 (37.8–41.9)
Molybdenum, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 405 1999–2016 100.0 95.6 49.0 (44.5–54.0) < .001 49.0 (44.6–53.9) < .001
Not Pregnant 3175 1999–2016 100.0 80.1 38.9 (37.8–40.0) 39.5 (38.2–40.8)
Selenium, Serum (ug/L) Pregnant 52 2011–2016 100.0 135 114 (109–119) < .001 113 (108–118) < .001
Not Pregnant 970 2011–2016 100.0 146 124 (123–126) 123 (121–125)
Thallium, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 99.6 .340 .168 (.152–.186) .073 .176 (.159–.196) .352
Not Pregnant 3189 1999–2016 99.6 .386 .153 (.147–0.16) .167 (.161–.174)
Thallium, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 408 1999–2016 99.6 .314 .167 (.157–.178) .748 .171 (.161–.181) .367
Not Pregnant 3188 1999–2016 99.6 .304 .165 (.161–.169) .166 (.162–.171)
Tungsten, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 405 1999–2016 83.2 .300 .087 (.075–.100) .004 .088 (.076–.101) .031
Not Pregnant 3179 1999–2016 82.0 .247 .070 (.066–.074) .074 (.070–.079)
Tungsten, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 405 1999–2016 83.2 .255 .086 (.076–.097) .027 .085 (.076–.096) .018
Not Pregnant 3178 1999–2016 82.0 .215 .075 (.072–.078) .074 (.070–.077)
Uranium, urine (ug/L) Pregnant 348 2001–2016 79.0 .030 .007 (.006–.008) .118 .007 (.006–.009) .244
Not Pregnant 2943 2001–2016 80.6 .020 .006 (.006–.006) .007 (.006–.007)
Uranium, urine (ug/g creatinine) Pregnant 348 2001–2016 79.0 .026 .007 (.006–.008) .448 .007 (.006–.009) .277
Not Pregnant 2942 2001–2016 80.6 .020 .006 (.006–.007) .007 (.006–.007)
Zinc, Serum (ug/dL) Pregnant 52 2011–2016 100.0 89.3 69.4 (66.1–72.8) < .001 70.2 (66.8–73.8) .001
Not Pregnant 971 2011–2016 100.0 95.4 76.8 (75.5–78.1) 76.6 (75.4–77.9)

Abbreviations: LOD, limit of detection; GM, geometric mean; LCL & UCL, lower and upper confidence limits of geometric mean; P90, 90th percentile; Pr, probability.

(*)

< 40% above LOD.

Regression calculations are based on ln-transformed analytes. Adjusted least squares geometric means were adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, household poverty-to-income ratio, BMI, and serum ln-cotinine. For urinary analytes, both ratio creatine-adjusted and non-creatinine-adjusted estimates were calculated. Ratio adjustments were calculated as analyte concentration/creatinine concentration.

F-tests test for difference in least squares geometric means by pregnancy status, adjusted for all covariates in the model.

All analytical results were weighted and design-adjusted according to NHANES analytic guidelines.

Inorganic-related Arsenic Species is the sum of arsenic acid, arsenous acid, dimethylarsinic acid, and monomethylarsonic acid as reported in (41). Imputed values were used when observed values in the sum were below LOD.