Table 2.
Macrophage polarization effects of EVs derived from stem cell from different tissue sources.
| MSC source | Stimulus | Species; model | Macrophage polarization effect | Effects/mechanism | Therapeutic effect | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bone marrow | No | Mouse; IBD (DSS & TNBS induced) | M2b macrophage polarization | Induction of IL-10 production | Suppressed inflammatory responses | 114 |
| Bone marrow | No | Mouse; Achilles tendon rupture | M2 macrophage polarization | Increase the number of endothelial cells and reduce type I collagen | Improved mechanical function & angiogenesis; reduced inflammation | 115 |
| Bone marrow | LPS | Mouse; myocardial infarction | M2 macrophage polarization | Depress NF-κB signaling pathway and activate AKT1/AKT2 signaling pathway | Reduced post-infarction cardiomyocyte apoptosis & inflammation | 116 |
| Bone marrow | No | Mouse; myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury | M2 macrophage polarization | miR-183 targeting of the TLR4 pathway | Reduced infarct size & inflammation | 117 |
| Bone marrow | LPS | Rat; diabetic cutaneous wound healing | M2 macrophage activation | Let-7b regulation of the TLR4/NF-κB/STAT3/AKT signaling pathway | Reduced inflammation & enhance cutaneous wound healing | 119 |
| Adipose tissue | No | Mouse; Obesity | M2 macrophage polarization | Arginase-1 activation of STAT3 transcription. | Greater insulin sensitivity & reduced adipose inflammation & obesity | 123 |
| Adipose tissue | No | Mouse; Aspergillus protease-treated MLE12 epithelial cells | M2 macrophage activation | Reduce eotaxin and IL-25, increase TGF-β and IL-10 | Reduced Th2-mediated inflammation | 125 |
| Adipose tissue | miR-30d-5p mimic | Rat; acute ischemic stroke | Promote M2 microglia/macrophage polarization | Suppress autophagy | Reduced cerebral injury area following infarction | 126 |
| Adipose tissue | LPS and d-galactosamine | Macrophages | Suppress M1 macrophage activation | miR-17 suppression of TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway | Reduce inflammatory factor secretion | 127 |
| Adipose tissue | No | Mouse; ovalbumin-induced asthma | M1 to M2 macrophage conversion | miR-183-5p sponging to enhance FoxO1-mediated M2 macrophage activation | Reduced airway remodeling | 128 |
| Human umbilical cord tissue | No | Mouse; spinal cord injury | Drive BMDM from M1 to M2 polarization | Inflammatory cytokine downregulation | Improved resolution of spinal cord injury | 135 |
| Human umbilical cord tissue | No | Rat; burn healing | Inhibit secretion of pro-inflammatory factors | miR-181c downregulation of TLR4 signaling pathway | Reduced burn-induced inflammation | 136 |
| Human umbilical cord tissue | IL-6 | Mouse; chemically induced liver injury | Inhibit macrophage activation and cytokine production | miR-455-3p targeting of PI3K signaling | Reduced macrophage infiltration & improved liver histology | 137 |
| Human umbilical cord tissue | No | Mouse; acute liver injury | ND | Reduced inflammation | Accelerated resolution of acute liver injury | 138 |
| Human umbilical cord tissue | No | Mouse; acute liver injury & LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages | Inhibit activation of the NLRP3 pathway | Reduced expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome and its regulated inflammatory factors | Enhanced liver tissue repair | 139 |
| Human umbilical cord tissue | TNF-α | Mouse; acute liver injury & LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages | Inhibit activation of the NLRP3 pathway | miRNA-299-3p reduction of proinflammatory cytokines and inhibition of the NLRP3 pathway | Reduced liver damage | 140 |
| Periodontal ligament | LPS | THP-1 macrophages | M1 macrophage polarization | Increased expression of M1-associated cytokines | M1 macrophage polarization | 141 |
IBD, Inflammatory bowel diseases; DSS, dextran sodium sulfate; TNBS, 2,4,6-trinitrobenenesulfonic acid solution; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; ND, not described; BMDMs, bone marrow derived macrophages.