Table 1. The dysregulated expression of MSX1 in cancer.
| Type of cancer | Subtype of cancer | Expression | Reasons for dysregulation in cancer | Involved signaling pathways | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lung cancer | Lung squamous cell carcinoma | Down | Hypermethylation | – | (36) |
| Colorectal cancer | Colon adenocarcinoma | Down | Hypermethylation | – | (9) |
| Colorectal cancer | – | Up | – | WNT signaling | (18) |
| Ovarian cancer | High-grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer | Down | – | – | (67) |
| Breast cancer | – | – | Gene mutation | – | (31) |
| Esophageal cancer | Esophageal adenocarcinoma | Down | Gene mutation | – | (32) |
| Leukemia | T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia | Up | GATA2, FOXC1 | BMP signaling | (48) |
| Leukemia | Acute myeloid leukemia | Up | – | – | (39) |
| Leukemia | NK cell leukemia | Down | Chromosome loss, AUTS2, PRDM1, IRF4 | BMP signaling | (34) |
| Neuroblastoma | – | Down | PHOX2B | – | (15) |
| Lymphoma | Mantle cell lymphoma | Up | PHF16, FOXC1, MNX1 | – | (39) |
| Gastric cancer | – | Up | SNP | – | (33) |
| Cervical cancer | – | Down | – | – | (68) |
| Testicular cancer | Testicular germ cell tumors | Down | – | – | (69) |
| Glioblastoma | – | Down | – | – | (70) |
| Hodgkin’s lymphoma | – | Down | Chromosome rearrangement, FOXC1 | – | (35,45) |
| Pituitary cancer | Pituitary adenomas | Up | – | – | (71) |
| Melanoma | – | Up | – | – | (72) |
| Liposarcoma | Myxoid liposarcoma | Up | – | – | (17) |
| Wilms tumor | – | Down | – | – | (73) |
| Endometrial cancer | – | Up | Hypomethylation | WNT signaling | (38,74) |
MSX1, muscle segment homeobox 1; BMP signaling, bone morphogenetic protein signaling; FOXC1, forkhead box C1; GATA2, GATA binding protein 2; AUTS2, activator of transcription and developmental regulator 2; PRDM1, PR/SET domain 1; IRF4, interferon regulatory factor 4; PHOX2B, paired like homeobox 2B; PHF16, plant homeodomain finger 16; HDAC, histone deacetylase; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism.