TABLE 2.
Associations between factors and general parenting self‐efficacy in the general population of parents with children between 0 and 18 years, reported by studies included in this review (n = 30)
| Direction of associations a | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative (‐) | Null (0) | Positive (+) | n/N b | Summary c | ||
| MOTHERS | ||||||
| PARENTAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Socio‐demographic factors | ||||||
| Age | Suzuki et al., 2009; Troutman et al., 2012; Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Ercegovac et al., 2013; de Haan et al., 2013; Katkic et al., 2017 | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 1/7 | 00 | ||
| Educational level (higher) | Suzuki et al., 2009; Holloway et al., 2005; Hill & Tyson, 2008; Ercegovac et al., 2013; Katkic et al., 2017 | Teti & Gelfand, 1991; Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Shrooti et al., 2016; | 3/8 | ?? | ||
| Ethnicity | Hill & Tyson, 2008 (African American vs. European American); Murdock, 2013 (white vs. non‐white); | Henney, 2016 (black vs. non‐black) | 1/3 | 0 | ||
| Parents' Personality/Psychological factors | ||||||
| Anxiety | Jover et al., 2014 | Ogel‐Balaban & Altan, 2020 | 1/2 | ? | ||
| Depression | Teti & Gelfand, 1991; Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Jover et al., 2014; Gordo et al., 2018 | Hill & Tyson, 2008; Baker et al., 2013; Hurwich‐Reiss & Watamura, 2019 | 4/7 | ‐‐ | ||
| Fatigue | Studts et al., 2019 | Dunning & Giallo, 2012 | 1/2 | ? | ||
| Depressed mood | Cutrona & Troutman, 1986 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parenting stress(higher) | Dunning and Giallo, 2012; Gordo et al., 2018; Mazur, 2006 | Baker et al., 2013 | 3/4 | ‐‐ | ||
| Parenting rewards | Gordo et al., 2018; | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting stressors | Gordo et al., 2018 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting distress | Mazur, 2006 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Self‐efficacy (Global level) (higher) d | Murdock, 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parenting self‐efficacy (Task‐specific level) (higher) | Teti & Gelfand, 1991 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Partners' parenting self‐efficacy (higher) | Yang et al., 2020 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parental competence (higher) | Knauth, 2000; Gordo et al., 2018; | 2/2 | + | |||
| Self‐esteem (higher) | Baker et al., 2013 | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 1/2 | ? | ||
| Parental affect | Murdock, 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Psychological need satisfaction (relatedness) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Psychological need satisfaction (autonomy) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Personality (Dominance) | Henney, 2016 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Personality (Apprehension) | Henney, 2016 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Personality (Rule consciousness) | Henney, 2016 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Personality (Perfectionism) | Henney, 2016 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Personality (Emotional stability) | Henney, 2016 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Personality (Social boldness) | Henney, 2016 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Personality (anxiety) | Henney, 2016 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Personality (self‐control) | Henney, 2016 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Personality (independence) | Henney, 2016 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Perceived Importance for family relationship | Knauth, 2000; | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parental–child interaction | ||||||
| Parenting quality (Conflict resolution) (higher) | Ercegovac et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parenting quality (Sense of acceptance) (higher) | Ercegovac et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Perception of child's vulnerability | Gordo et al., 2018 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parenting behaviour(control) | Murdock, 2013; | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parenting behaviour (hostile or coercive) | Murdock, 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting behaviour (supportive or engaged); | Murdock, 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Readiness for pregnancy (ref: unplanned) | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parenting satisfaction (higher) | Gordo et al., 2018; Mazur, 2006; Yang et al., 2020 | 3/3 | + | |||
| Parenting discipline (overreactive) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting discipline (warmth) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Biased appraisals (negative cognitive error) | Mazur, 2006 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Biased appraisals (positive illusions) | Mazur, 2006 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Other parental factors | ||||||
| Childhood memories (positive) | Holloway et al., 2005; Suzuki et al., 2009 | 2/2 | + | |||
| Physical activity | Studts et al., 2019 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parity (non‐primiparous) | Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Suzuki et al., 2009 | Troutman et al., 2012; Shrooti et al., 2016 | 2/4 | ?? | ||
| CHILD FACTORS | ||||||
| Socio‐demographic factors | ||||||
| Age | Suzuki et al., 2009; Holloway et al., 2005; Murdock, 2013; de Haan et al., 2013; Katkic et al., 2017; Studts et al., 2019 | 0/6 | 00 | |||
| Gender (girls) | Holloway et al., 2005; Murdock, 2013; Katkic et al., 2017 | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/4 | 00 | ||
| General Health status (better) | Baker et al., 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Child developmental difficulty(yes) | Baker et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Behaviour problems | Murdock, 2013; Studts et al., 2019 | 2/2 | ‐ | |||
| Aggression (more) | de Haan, 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Temperament (difficult) | Teti & Gelfand, 1991; Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; | Baker et al., 2013 | 2/3 | ‐ | ||
| Irritable (more) | Troutman et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Gestational week | Baker et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| SOCIAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Social Support | ||||||
| Perceived level of social support (higher) | Baker et al., 2013; Katkic et al., 2017 | Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Shrooti et al., 2016; Teti & Gelfand, 1991 | 3/5 | ++ | ||
| Number of support persons (more) | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Source of support | Holloway et al., 2005 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Spouses' support | Holloway et al., 2005; Suzuki et al., 2009 | 2/2 | + | |||
| Social support satisfaction(higher) | Holloway et al., 2005 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Friends support satisfaction (higher) | Suzuki et al., 2009 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Marital /paternal relationship | ||||||
| Marital quality (higher) | Katkic et al., 2017 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Age at marriage | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Number of years married | Cutrona & Troutman, 1986 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Marital status (single) | Dunning & Giallo, 2012; Murdock, 2013 | Ercegovac et al., 2013 | 1/3 | 00 | ||
| Partner violence (coercive control) | Gou et al., 2019 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Occupation Characteristics | ||||||
| Employment (yes) | Dunning & Giallo, 2012; Ercegovac et al., 2013; Katkic et al., 2017 | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 1/4 | 00 | ||
| Occupational prestige | Hill & Tyson, 2008 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Family factors | ||||||
| Household income (higher) | Murdock, 2013; | Teti & Gelfand, 1991; Shrooti et al., 2016 | 2/3 | + | ||
| Number of children (more) | Baker et al., 2013; Holloway et al., 2005; Katkic et al., 2017 | Troutman et al., 2012; Ercegovac et al., 2013 | 2/5 | ?? | ||
| Spouses' Employment prestige | Hill & Tyson, 2008; | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Spouses’ educational level (higher) | Hill & Tyson, 2008 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Economic status (lower) | Hurwich‐Reiss & Watamura, 2019 | Troutman et al., 2012; Dunning & Giallo, 2012 | 1/3 | 0 | ||
| Family functioning(better) | Knauth, 2000 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Family size (bigger) | Jover et al., 2014; Ercegovac et al., 2013 | 2/2 | + | |||
| Family stress (higher) | Hill & Tyson, 2008 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Satisfaction with life (higher) | Baker et al., 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Neighbourhood | ||||||
| Neighbourhood quality(higher) | Hill & Tyson, 2008 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Neighbourhood safety | Hill & Tyson, 2008 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Neighbourhood social involvement (higher) | Hill & Tyson, 2008 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Other socio‐contextual factors | ||||||
| Religion | Shrooti et al., 2016 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Region | Holloway et al., 2005; Shrooti et al., 2016; Ercegovac et al., 2013; Shrooti et al., 2016 | 0/4 | 0 | |||
| Country of birth | Suzuki et al., 2009 (Janpan > USA) | 1/1 | ||||
| FATHERS | ||||||
| PARENTAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Socio‐demographic factors | ||||||
| Age | de Haan et al., 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Educational level (higher) | McBride, 1989; | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 1/2 | ? | ||
| Ethnicity | Murdock, 2013(white vs. non‐white); | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parents' Personality/Psychological factors | ||||||
| Depression | Gordo et al., 2018 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting stress (higher) | Gordo et al., 2018; McBride, 1989; | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 2/3 | ‐ | ||
| Parenting rewards | Gordo et al., 2018 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting stressors | Gordo et al., 2018 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Self‐efficacy (Global level) (higher) | Murdock, 2013; | 1/1 | + | |||
| Partner's parenting self‐efficacy (higher) | Yang et al., 2020 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parental competence (higher) | Gordo et al., 2018; Knauth, 2000 | 2/2 | + | |||
| Parental affect | Murdock, 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Psychological need satisfaction (relatedness) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Psychological need satisfaction (autonomy) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Perceived Importance for family relationship | Knauth, 2000 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parental–child interaction | ||||||
| Beliefs on parental role | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Involvement | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Perception of child's vulnerability | Gordo et al., 2018 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parenting behaviour(control) | Murdock, 2013; | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parenting behaviour (hostile or coercive) | Murdock, 2013 | 0/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting behaviour (supportive or engaged); | Murdock, 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Parenting satisfaction (higher) | Gordo et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2020 | 2/2 | + | |||
| Parenting discipline (overreactive ), | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting discipline (warmth) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| CHILD FACTORS | ||||||
| Age | Murdock, 2013; de Haan et al., 2013; McBride, 1989 | 0/3 | 0 | |||
| Gender (girls) | Murdock, 2013; McBride, 1989 | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/3 | 00 | ||
| General Health status (better) | Salonen | 1/1 | + | |||
| Behaviour problem | Murdock, 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Aggression (more) | de Haan et al., 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| SOCIAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Social Support | ||||||
| Financial Support | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 1/1 | ‘+ | |||
| Number of support persons (more) | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Spouses' support | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Marital /paternal relationship | ||||||
| Number of years married | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Marital status (single) | Murdock, 2013; Kwok & Li, 2015; | 0/2 | 0 | |||
| Partner violence (coercive control) | Gou et al., 2019 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting alliance | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Occupation Characteristics | ||||||
| Employment (yes) | Kwok & Li, 2015; | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Family factors | ||||||
| Household income (higher) | Murdock, 2013; McBride, 1989; Kwok & Li, 2015 | 0/3 | 0 | |||
| Number of children (more) | McBride, 1989 | 0/2 | 0 | |||
| Spouses' Employment (yes) | McBride, 1989 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Spouses' income (higher) | Kwok & Li, 2015 | 1/1 | 0 | |||
| Family functioning (better) | Knauth, 2000 | 0/1 | ? | |||
| Family size (bigger) | Kwok & Li, 2015; | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| PARENTS | ||||||
| PARENTAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Socio‐demographic factors | ||||||
| Gender(female) | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | de Haan et al., 2009; Cooklin et al., 2012 | 2/3 | ? | ||
| Age | de Haan et al., 2009; Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/2 | 0 | |||
| Educational level (higher) | de Haan et al., 2009; Cooklin et al., 2012; Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/3 | 0 | |||
| Parents' Personality/Psychological factors | ||||||
| Anxiety | Giallo et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Depression | Giallo et al., 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Fatigue | Cooklin et al., 2012 | Giallo et al., 2013; Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 1/3 | 0 | ||
| Parenting stress (higher) | Giallo et al., 2013 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Sense of Hope | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Tolerance | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Personality (autonomy) | de Haan et al., 2009 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Personality (agreeableness) | de Haan et al., 2009 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Personality (conscientiousness) | de Haan et al., 2009 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Personality (extraversion) | de Haan et al., 2009 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Personality (emotional stability) | de Haan et al., 2009 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Coping strategy (active coping) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Coping strategy (using emotional support) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Coping strategy (using instrument support) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Coping strategy (behavioural disengagement) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Coping strategy (positive reframing) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Coping strategy (planning) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Coping strategy (humour) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Coping strategy (acceptance) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Coping strategy (self‐blame) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Parenting quality (Conflict resolution) | de Haan et al., 2009 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Involvement (more) | Giallo et al., 2013 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Perception of child's vulnerability | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Parenting satisfaction (higher) | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Experience with children | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 1/1 | ‐ | |||
| Others parental factors | ||||||
| General Health Status (better) | Giallo et al., 2013; Cooklin et al., 2012; Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/2 | 0 | |||
| CHILD FACTORS | ||||||
| Behaviour problems | Finzi‐Dottan et al., 2011 | 1/1 | − | |||
| Emotional Intelligence (higher) | Finzi‐Dottan et al., 2011 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Temperament (difficult) | Giallo et al., 2013 | 1/1 | − | |||
| SOCIAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Social Support | ||||||
| Perceived support need (higher) | Giallo et al., 2013;Cooklin et al., 2012 | 2/2 | − | |||
| Perceived level of social support (higher) | s | 1/1 | + | |||
| Marital /paternal relationship | ||||||
| Marital status (single) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Marital quality (higher) | Giallo et al., 2013 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Occupation Characteristics | ||||||
| Employment (yes) | Cooklin et al., 2012; Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/2 | 0 | |||
| Family factors | ||||||
| Economic status (lower) | Cooklin et al., 2012 | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 1/2 | ? | ||
| Family size (bigger) | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Quality of life (higher) | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 1/1 | + | |||
| Neighbourhood | ||||||
| Neighbourhood collective efficacy (higher) | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
| Other socio‐contextual factors | ||||||
| Religion | Davidson Arad et al., 2018 | 0/1 | 0 | |||
a
Summarized data from all studies included in the review.
b
n represents the number of studies reporting a significant association, N represents the total number of studies investigating the association.
c
The association was labelled as ‘0’ (no association), ‘?’ (indeterminate/possible) and ‘+’ or ‘−’(significant positive/negative association) if supported by 0%–33%, 34%–59% and 60%–100% of individual studies, respectively. In addition, double signs (‘00’, ‘??’, ‘++’ and ‘−−’) were used to indicate if the factors were evaluated by 4 or more studies.
d
Global self‐efficacy refers to a person's beliefs about being capable or confident to complete any given task, and parenting is one of these tasks. narrow‐domain PSE concentrates on parental perceived competence in one parenting domain; task‐specific PSE refers to the confidence a parent has over a set of discrete parenting tasks.