Table 2.

Summary of key genotoxic mechanisms of the nanoparticles in terms of their molecular interaction and cellular processes

Primary direct	Primary indirect	Secondary genotoxicity
Effect on DNA Structure/Integrity Replication Transcription	Effect on nuclear proteins Centrioles	Excessive ROS accumulation by inflammatory cells
Effect on chromosome Clastogenic Aneugenic	Effect on chromosomal proteins Cell cycle check points	Oxidative DNA damage via accumulative ROS levels
	Effect on relevant cellular processes Replication Transcription DNA repair proteins ROS production

NPs, nanoparticles; ROS, reactive oxygen species.