Table 1.

Dominant legume-based traditional foods

Food	Substrate(s)/ingredients	Principal processing stages	Nature of product/mode of consumption	Area	Reference
Fermented
Adai	Legume seeds and cereal grains	Soaking → grinding → mixing of batters → fermenting → frying	Fried snack food	South India	Ray et al. (2016)
Afiyo (okpehe or kpaye)	Mesquite bean (Prosopis sp.)	Boiling → dehulling → boiling → fermenting → sun-drying	Sticky, brown, with a strong odor; condiment	Nigeria	Evans et al. (2013)
Aisa	Albizia saman seeds	Boiling → Dehulling → reboiling → rinsing → fermenting	Dark brown with creamish mucilaginous slime, ammoniacal odor; condiment	Nigeria	Ogunshe et al. (2006)
Amriti	Black gram dal (Vigna mungo)	Soaking → grinding → fermenting → deep frying	Snack food	India	Roy et al. (2007)
Bedvin roti	Black gram dal, opium seed or walnut flour	Dough making → fermenting → baking/frying	Baked or deeply fried; breakfast or snack food	India	Thakur et al. (2004)
Chungkokjang (cheonggukjang or jeonkukjang)	Soybean (Glycine max)	Soaking → cooking → fermenting	Alkaline, sticky; condiment, soup	Korea	Shin and Jeong (2015); Kim et al. (2017)
Dawadawa (soydawadawa)	Soybean	Soaking → dehulling → cooking → fermenting	Condiments	Nigeria	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Dawadawa, kinda, iru, soumbala	Locust bean (Parkia biglobosa)	Boiling → dehulling → reboiling → fermenting → air-drying	Alkaline, sticky, condiments; flavoring agent in soups	West and Central Africa	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Dhokla	Rice grains and bengal gram dal (Cicer arietinum)	Soaking → grinding → mixing of batters → fermenting → steaming	Mild acidic, spongy, steamed cake; snack food	Western India	Nout et al. (2007)
Dosa	Black gram dal and rice grains	Soaking → grinding → mixing of batters → fermenting → frying	Crispy pancake; Snack food	Southern India	Nout et al. (2007)
Douchi	Black soybean	Soaking → cooking → inoculating with Aspergillus oryzae → fermenting	Alkaline, paste; condiment, soup	China	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Gochujang /Kochujang	Soybean, red pepper, rice, barley malt powder	Soaking → fermenting	Seasoning agent	Korea	Shin and Jeong (2015)
Idli	Black gram dal and rice grains	Soaking → grinding → mixing of batters → fermenting → steaming	Mild acidic, soft, moist, spongy; breakfast food	South India, Sri Lanka	Nout et al. (2007)
Kinema, hawaijar, tungrymbai, aakhone, bekang, peruyyan	Soybean	Soaking → cooking → fermenting	Alkaline, sticky; curry soup	Darjeeling hills and North East of India, Bhutan, Nepal	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Maseura (masyaura)	Black gram dal/rice-bean (Vigna umbellate)	Soaking → grinding → molding drying	Dry, ball-like, brittle; condiment	India, Nepal	Chettri and Tamang (2008)
Meitauza	Okara (soybean press cake)	Fresh okara → soaking → steaming → squeezing → cooling → shaping → fermenting → sun-drying	Served either fried in oil or cooked with vegetables as flavouring agent	China, Taiwan	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Meju	Soybean	Soaking → cooking → block making → fermenting	Alkaline, paste; seasoning agent	Korea	Shin and Jeong (2015)
Natto	Soybean	Soaking → boiling → fermenting	Alkaline, mucilagenous snack food; flavouring agent	Japan, Korea	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Oncom: Hitam (black) and merah (red)	Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) press cake	Soaking → steaming → inoculating with Neurospora spp. or Rhizopus spp. → fermenting	Solid product roasted or fried in oil; used as meat substitute	Indonesia	Nout et al. (2007)
Oso	Cathormion altissimum seeds	Boiling → fermenting	Alkaline; condiment	Nigeria	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Otiru	African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa)	Soaking → dehulling → fermenting	Greyish brown, mucilaginous, with ammoniacal odor; condiment	Nigeria	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Owoh	African yam bean	Boiling → mashing → packing → fermenting	Alkaline; condiment	Nigeria	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Papad or papadam	Black gram, bengal gram, lentil (Lens culinaris), red gram (Cajanus cajan) or green gram (Vigna radiata) flour	Hand-kneading into dough → fermenting → rolling into thin, circular, flat sheets → drying under shade	Circular wafers; condiment; snack food	India	Nout et al. (2007)
Pitha (chakuli, enduri, munha, chhuchipatra, podo)	Black gram dal and rice grains	Soaking → grinding → fermenting → frying/steaming	Breakfast or snack food	India	Ray et al. (2016)
Sepubari	Black gram dal	Fermenting → frying	Sun-dried /deep-fried solids; side dish	India	Savitri and Bhalla (2007)
Soybean paste: Doenjang or jang, miso, tauco, tao chieo	Soybean, wheat or rice grains	Soaking → cooking → adding with rice/wheat koji, salt & water → rough mashing → fermenting	Alkaline, salty, bright yellow to brackish brown; flavoring agent in soups	China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Thailand	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Soy sauce: Jiang you, shoyu or tamari shoyu, kanjang, kicap, kecap, taosi, ketjap, inyu	Soybean/black soybean and wheat grains	Soaking → cooking → adding roasted wheat → koji → addiing Aspergillus spores, yeasts → brewing → pressing → filtering to separate sauce → storage	Alkaline syrup, light or dark brown liquid with meat-like salty flavour; condiment, seasoning agent	China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan, Hong Kong	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Sufu or furu	Soybean	Dehulling → soaking → grinding, sieving and cooking of water extract → coagulating → making curd cubes → inoculating with mold → fermenting → matruring in brine	Semi-solid flavoring side dish	China, Taiwan	Nout et al. (2007): Guan et al. (2013)
Tempeh	Soybean	Dehulling (wet/dry) → soaking → cooking → inoculating (Rhizopus spp.) → fermenting	Mildly alkaline, solid; fried cake; snack food	East Java, Indonesia	Nout et al. 1993; Nout et al. (2007)
Thua nao	Soybean	Soaking → boiling → fermenting	Alkaline, paste, dry; soup	Thailand	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Tuong	Soybean	Sieving → roasting → grinding → soaking → fermenting + adding fermented rice → mashing → cooking → fermenting	Seasoning	North and central Vietnam	Nguyen (2015)
Vada	Legume and cereal	Soaking → grinding → mixing of batters → fermenting → frying	Deep fried patties; Snack food	India	Ray et al. (2016)
Ugba/ukpaka	African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla)	Boiling → dehulling → cooking → washing → cutting into slices → reboiling → adding salt (optional) → fermenting	Condiment	West and Central Africa	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Wadi	Black gram dal	Soaking → batter preparation → fermenting → drying	Ball-like, hollow, brittle; spicy condiment taken with vegetables, legumes, boiled rice	Northern India	Nout et al. (2007)
Yandou	Soybean	Soaking → boiling → fermenting → adding salt → sun-drying	Sticky; snacks	China	Sarkar and Nout (2014)
Non-fermented
Akara	Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)	Soaking (1st) → dehulling → soaking (2nd) → wet-milling → seasoning → frying	Fried dumpling with seasoning	Nigeria	Bolade (2016)
Dhal/dal	Whole/dehulled split seeds	Soaking → cooking	Soup	India	Dahiya et al. (2013)
Edamame/mao dou	Immature fresh and frozen soybean	Frying or boiling in water with salt	Sweet, nutty flavoured; ingredient in salad	China and Japan	Miles et al. (2000)
Ekuru	Cowpea	Soaking (1st) → dehulling → soaking (2nd) → wet-milling → steaming	Steamed paste	Nigeria	Bolade (2016)
Ewa ibeji	Cowpea	Cooking until softened	Cooked and softened product	Nigeria	Bolade (2016)
Gachas	Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus)	-	Traditional meal	Spain	Megias et al. (2015)
Gbegiri	Cowpea	Soaking → dehulling → pressure-cooking → micronization (overnight tampering of seeds) → seasoning → cooking	Soup	Nigeria	Bolade (2016)
Kadi/kadu/kheeru	Buttermilk/dahi (fermented milk) and gram flour	Cooking dahi with spices and besan (gram flour)	Side dish	India	Savitri and Bhalla (2007)
Laddu/burfi	Mung bean flour, nuts, ghee	Milling → roasting → mixing → shaping	Round/flat rectangular; sweet	India	Dahiya et al. (2013)
Madrah	Kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)	Cooking beans with ghee (clarified butterfat) and yoghurt	Curry with ghee and yoghurt; served with steamed rice	India	Savitri and Bhalla (2007)
Moin-Moin	Cowpea	Soaking → dehulling → resoaking → wet-milling → seasoning → steaming	Steamed paste with seasoning	Nigeria	Bolade (2016)
Okara	Soybean	Residual solid from soymilk extraction	Prepared to various food items	China, Japan and Korea	He and Chen (2013)
Sang	Wheat grain, pea (Pisum sativum), horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) etc	Boiling in water	Soup	India	Savitri and Bhalla (2007)
Soynuts	Fried, baked or roasted soaked soybeans	Soaking → frying/baking/roasting	Snack	Europe	He and Chen (2013)
Teliye mah	Blackgram	–	Semi solid product	India	Savitri and Bhalla (2007)
Tofu	Soybean	Soaking → boiling → sieving → coagulating	Coagulation of soy protein curd; side dish	China	Nout et al. (2007)