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. 2021 Jul 1;11:13658. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-92816-6

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Functional linear modelling comparing 24-h sleep–wake patterns of BaYaka men and women. Women are represented by a red line and men represented by a black line. Women displayed a sharp, steady incline of activity in the morning and generally higher levels of mean activity throughout the day as compared to men, especially in the afternoon. Men show a decline in their activity towards noon, suggestive of resting and/or napping periods before the next peak of activity, and a steady decline throughout the evening. The bottom panel displays a permutation F test; the point-wise critical value (dotted line) displays the proportion of permutation F values at the significance level of 0.05 for every time point. Men and women have significantly different mean circadian activity patterns at the points when the observed F-statistic (represented as a solid line) crosses the critical value (dotted line).