Table 1.
Summary of meta-analysis results for incidence of Rabies virus in humans, dogs, and other animal species in Africa.
| Incidence. % (95%CI) | 95% Prediction interval | N Studies | N Participants | H (95%CI) | §I2 (95%CI) | P heterogeneity | P Egger test | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| RABV incidence in humans | ||||||||
| Active infection | ||||||||
| Suspected Rabies cases | ||||||||
| Overall | 83.4 [64.6–96.6] | [12.4–100] | 5 | 222 | 2.7 [1.9–4] | 86.7 [71.1–93.9] | < 0.001 | 0.695 |
| Cross-sectional | 89.9 [75.4–98.9] | [14.7–100] | 4 | 211 | 2.4 [1.5–3.8] | 82.6 [55.5–93.2] | 0.001 | 0.755 |
| Past exposure | ||||||||
| Apparently healthy subjects | ||||||||
| Overall | 33.8 [22–46.8] | NA | 2 | 420 | 2.1 [1–4.4] | 76.9 [0–94.7] | 0.037 | NA |
| Cross-sectional | 33.8 [22–46.8] | NA | 2 | 420 | 2.1 [1–4.4] | 76.9 [0–94.7] | 0.037 | NA |
| RABV incidence in dogs | ||||||||
| Active infection | ||||||||
| Suspected rabid stray dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 86.3 [83.1–89.2] | NA | 1 | 489 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Cross-sectional | 86.3 [83.1–89.2] | NA | 1 | 489 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Suspected rabid owned dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 73.5 [71.4–75.5] | NA | 1 | 1772 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Cross-sectional | 73.5 [71.4–75.5] | NA | 1 | 1772 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Suspected rabid unspecified dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 62.5 [47.5–76.4] | [12.3–99.2] | 8 | 2287 | 6.4 [5.3–7.6] | 97.5 [96.5–98.3] | < 0.001 | 0.299 |
| Cross-sectional | 62.5 [47.5–76.4] | [12.3–99.2] | 8 | 2287 | 6.4 [5.3–7.6] | 97.5 [96.5–98.3] | < 0.001 | 0.299 |
| Owned dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 60.6 [52.6–68.4] | [33.3–84.8] | 8 | 3100 | 3.8 [2.9–4.8] | 93 [88.5–95.7] | < 0.001 | 0.808 |
| Cross-sectional | 57 [49.9–63.9] | [33.9–78.6] | 7 | 3006 | 3.2 [2.4–4.3] | 90.1 [82.2–94.5] | < 0.001 | 0.695 |
| Unspecified dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 43.2 [25.6–61.7] | [0−100] | 16 | 6606 | 13.3 [12.4–14.4] | 99.4 [99.3–99.5] | < 0.001 | 0.138 |
| Cross-sectional | 43.2 [25.6–61.7] | [0–100] | 16 | 6606 | 13.3 [12.4–14.4] | 99.4 [99.3–99.5] | < 0.001 | 0.138 |
| Stray dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 10.9 [4.7–19] | [0–45] | 7 | 1254 | 3.6 [2.7–4.7] | 92.3 [86.7–95.6] | < 0.001 | 0.98 |
| Cross-sectional | 13.7 [6.8–22.4] | [0–49.3] | 6 | 1196 | 3.5 [2.6–4.7] | 91.8 [84.9–95.5] | < 0.001 | 0.612 |
| Wild dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 0 [0–1.9] | NA | 1 | 92 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Past exposure | ||||||||
| Unspecified dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 28.5 [17.2–41.2] | [0–87.2] | 4 | 777 | 3.8 [2.6–5.5] | 92.9 [85.2–96.6] | < 0.001 | 0.545 |
| Cross-sectional | 26.7 [11.6–45.2] | [0–100] | 3 | 499 | 4.4 [2.9–6.7] | 94.9 [88.4–97.7] | < 0.001 | 0.486 |
| Owned dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 21.8 [11.7–33.8] | [0–70] | 10 | 2168 | 5.8 [4.9–6.8] | 97 [95.8–97.9] | < 0.001 | 0.978 |
| Cross-sectional | 22.5 [11.5–35.7] | [0–73.5] | 9 | 2088 | 6.1 [5.2–7.3] | 97.3 [96.2–98.1] | < 0.001 | 0.934 |
| Stray dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 17.9 [2.3–42.2] | [0–100] | 4 | 535 | 5.5 [4–7.4] | 96.6 [93.9–98.2] | < 0.001 | 0.943 |
| Cross-sectional | 17.9 [2.3–42.2] | [0–100] | 4 | 535 | 5.5 [4–7.4] | 96.6 [93.9–98.2] | < 0.001 | 0.943 |
| Wild dogs | ||||||||
| Overall | 4.9 [0–27.4] | [0–100] | 3 | 97 | 2.8 [1.7–4.7] | 87.3 [64.1–95.5] | < 0.001 | 0.083 |
| Cross-sectional | 4.9 [0–27.4] | [0–100] | 3 | 97 | 2.8 [1.7–4.7] | 87.3 [64.1–95.5] | < 0.001 | 0.083 |
| RABV incidence in other animal species | ||||||||
| Active infection | ||||||||
| Perissodactyla | ||||||||
| Overall | 84.3 [59.2–99.3] | [1.6–100] | 7 | 140 | 3.3 [2.5–4.4] | 90.7 [83.4–94.8] | < 0.001 | 0.758 |
| Cross-sectional | 84.3 [59.2–99.3] | [1.6–100] | 7 | 140 | 3.3 [2.5–4.4] | 90.7 [83.4–94.8] | < 0.001 | 0.758 |
| Artiodactyla | ||||||||
| Overall | 57.4 [46–68.5] | [12.2–96.2] | 18 | 2044 | 4.3 [3.7–5] | 94.6 [92.8–96] | < 0.001 | 0.163 |
| Cross-sectional | 57.4 [46–68.5] | [12.2–96.2] | 18 | 2044 | 4.3 [3.7–5] | 94.6 [92.8–96] | < 0.001 | 0.163 |
| Carnivora | ||||||||
| Overall | 51.4 [34.7–68] | [0–100] | 15 | 746 | 4.4 [3.7–5.1] | 94.8 [92.8–96.2] | < 0.001 | 0.302 |
| Cross-sectional | 48.9 [31.8–66.2] | [0–100] | 14 | 731 | 4.5 [3.8–5.3] | 95 [93.1–96.4] | < 0.001 | 0.21 |
| Primates | ||||||||
| Overall | 23.7 [0–95.1] | NA | 2 | 21 | 3.6 [1.9–6.6] | 92.1 [72.8–97.7] | < 0.001 | NA |
| Cross-sectional | 23.7 [0–95.1] | NA | 2 | 21 | 3.6 [1.9–6.6] | 92.1 [72.8–97.7] | < 0.001 | NA |
| Rodentia | ||||||||
| Overall | 5.3 [0–46.2] | NA | 2 | 487 | 4.1 [2.3–7.3] | 94.1 [81.2–98.1] | < 0.001 | NA |
| Cross-sectional | 5.3 [0–46.2] | NA | 2 | 487 | 4.1 [2.3–7.3] | 94.1 [81.2–98.1] | < 0.001 | NA |
| Chiroptera | ||||||||
| Overall | 0 [0–0.1] | [0–1.5] | 10 | 5156 | 2.1 [1.5–2.8] | 76.6 [56.8–87.3] | < 0.001 | 0.04 |
| Cross-sectional | 0 [0–0.1] | [0–1.5] | 10 | 5156 | 2.1 [1.5–2.8] | 76.6 [56.8–87.3] | < 0.001 | 0.04 |
| Multiple animals | ||||||||
| Overall | 46.4 [31.7–61.5] | [3.5–93.3] | 8 | 4271 | 6 [5–7.2] | 97.2 [96–98.1] | < 0.001 | 0.299 |
| Cross-sectional | 46.4 [31.7–61.5] | [3.5–93.3] | 8 | 4271 | 6 [5–7.2] | 97.2 [96–98.1] | < 0.001 | 0.299 |
| Past exposure | ||||||||
| Carnivora | ||||||||
| Overall | 7.8 [0−23] | [0–72.4] | 6 | 180 | 2.6 [1.8–3.7] | 85.4 [70.1–92.8] | < 0.001 | 0.05 |
| Cross-sectional | 7.8 [0–23] | [0–72.4] | 6 | 180 | 2.6 [1.8–3.7] | 85.4 [70.1–92.8] | < 0.001 | 0.05 |
| Artiodactyla | ||||||||
| Overall | 7 [4.2–10.5] | NA | 1 | 256 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Cross-sectional | 7 [4.2–10.5] | NA | 1 | 256 | NA | NA | 1 | NA |
| Chiroptera | ||||||||
| Overall | 0.4 [0–2.8] | [0–83.8] | 3 | 419 | 1.9 [1–3.5] | 72.1 [5.6–91.7] | 0.028 | 0.245 |
| Cross-sectional | 0.4 [0–2.8] | [0–83.8] | 3 | 419 | 1.9 [1–3.5] | 72.1 [5.6–91.7] | 0.028 | 0.245 |
CI: confidence interval; N: Number; 95% CI: 95% Confidence Interval; NA: not applicable. H estimates the extent of heterogeneity, a value of H = 1 indicates lack of evidence on heterogeneity of effects and a value of H > 1indicates a potential heterogeneity of effects. §: I2 describes the proportion of total variation in study estimates that is due to heterogeneity, a value >50% indicates presence of heterogeneity. All these estimates were obtained using random effect meta-analysis.