Table 1.

Mechanisms by which GLP-1 modulates the cardiovascular system and blood pressure.

Mechanisms	Effects of GLP-1R and DPP-4i on the cardiovascular system and blood pressure	Ref.
Vascular endothelial function	Improves function of vascular endothelial cells	[58, 60–62]
Heart rate	Increases heart rate leading to higher blood pressure	[66–69]
Oxidative stress	Improves redox state leading to the promoted function of the cardiovascular system; little is known about the direct effect on the cardiovascular system and blood pressure	[58, 59, 74–78]
Nitric oxide	Induces nitric oxide production in vascular endothelial cells	[80–84]
Central nervous system	Activates the sympathetic nervous system leading to a higher heart rate and blood pressure	[66, 85, 86, 88]
Renal function	Indirectly improves cardiovascular function by promoting renal sufficiency	[90–96]
Pulmonary artery pressure	Declines pulmonary artery pressure	[97–101]
Renin-angiotensin system	Modulates the renin-angiotensin system, needs more investigations yet	[86, 104]