Table 1.
Current clinical and relevant assortment of potential preclinical tracers of different imaging modalities have been gathered to the table.
| Technique | Disease/organ | Marker | Preclinical/Clinical | References number |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ASL-MRI | stroke / brain | cerebral blood flow; arterial transit time | Clinical | (241–243) |
| stroke / pediatric brain | cerebral blood flow | Clinical | (244–246) | |
| tumors / brain | cerebral blood flow | Clinical | (247, 248) | |
| DCE-MRI | multiplesclerosis (MS)/Brain | blood-brain barrier permeability; volume transfer constant; extracellular space volume fraction | Clinical | (249) |
| stroke / brain | blood-brain barrier permeability; contrast-agent leakage rate; volume transfer constant | Clinical | (250) | |
| DCE-MRI | multiplesclerosis (MS)/Brain | BBB permeability | Clinical | (19) |
| prostatic hyperplasia / prostate | perfusion fraction; extraction fraction; mean transit time; extravascular-extracellular volume | Clinical | (18) | |
| DSC-MRI | tumors / brain | cerebral blood volume | clinical | (14, 15) |
| stroke / brain | cerebral blood flow; cerebral blood volume; mean transit time | clinical | (243) | |
| MRI | Vasculitis/central nervous system/brain | arterial wall thickening, vessel wall enhancement on post-gadolinium black-blood MRI | Clinical | (33–37) |
| Intracranial aneurysms/brain | aneurysm wall enhancement on post-gadolinium black-blood MRI | clinical | (42–46, 53–56) | |
| IBD / small bowel and colon | bowel wall thickening, restricted diffusion, edema, increased contrast media uptake, strictures, ulcerations, reduced motility, mesenterial reaction | clinical | (59–64, 66–69) | |
| metabolic hyperpolarized MRI | arthritis | anaerobic glycolysis; lactate; lactate dehydrogenase | Preclinical/Clinical | (79) |
| liver | anaerobic glycolysis; lactate; lactate dehydrogenase | preclinical | (80) | |
| myocardial infarction | anaerobic glycolysis; lactate; lactate dehydrogenase | Preclinical/Clinical | (81) | |
| muscullo skeletal | anaerobic glycolysis; lactate; lactate dehydrogenase | preclinical | (82) | |
| general inflammation | pH; bicarbonate/CO2, zymonic acid; pyruvate dehydrogenase | preclinical | (251) | |
| gaseous hyperpolarized MRI | lung, brain | ventilation, dissolved-phase imaging; 129Xe | clinical | (83) |
| head, neck, lungs | FLASH) MRI; 3He, proton (H2O, CH2-group) | pre-clinical/clinical | (84) | |
| COPD/lung, asthma, cystic fibrosis | ventilation, diffusion and dissoved-phase imaging; 129Xe, 3He; Oxygen concetration, lung capacity. | clinical | (85) | |
| lung, kidney, brain/ COPD | Ventilation, dissolved-phase imaging; 129Xe, 3He; barrier uptake, red blood cell transfer, ventilation defect percentage. | clinical | (86) | |
| lung/ emphysema | diffusion imaging; 3He; apparent diffusion coefficient. | clinical | (87) | |
| lung/COPD, Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, left heart failure, pulmonary arterial hypertension | Ventilation and gas transfer maps ; 129He; ventilation defects, Red blood cell- transfer. | clinical | (88) | |
| lung/ COPD | Transfer Contrast MRI; 129Xe; apparent diffusion coefficient. | clinical | (89) | |
| lung/ COPD, asthma | 3D dissolved-phase imaging; 129Xe; red blood cell to tissue–plasma ratio. | clinical | (90) | |
| lung/ idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis | Spectroscopic imaging; 129Xe; regional gas exchange. | clinical | (91) | |
| lung/ COPD, asthma | 2D and 3D ventilation imaging, 129Xe; dissolved-phase to gas-phase xenon ratio. | clinical | (92) | |
| SPECT/PET | ||||
| IBD /and many other inflammations | 18F-FDG | clinical | (94, 102–117) | |
| IBD | Leukocytes99mTc-HMPAO-leukocytes | clinical | (252) | |
| IBD | CXCL899mTc-CXCL8 | clinical | ||
| IBD | β764Cu-FIB504.64-Fab | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | α4β764Cu-DATK32 | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | β764Cu-FIB504.64-Fab | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | β764Cu-FIB504.64-F(ab′)2 (fragments) | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | CD489Zr-GK1.5 cys-diabody | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | TNF-α99mTc-InfliximabRatsTNBS | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | IgG111In-IgGRabbitsTNBS | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | Leukocytes111In-WBC | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | Liposomes111In-liposomes | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | IL-899mTc-HYNIC-IL-8RabbitsTNBS | Preclinical | ||
| IBD | Granulocytes99mTc-HMPAO-Granulocytes | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | imaging inflammatory cells | Preclinical | (253) | |
| IBD and many inflammations | 11C-PK11195, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FEDAA1106, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FEMPA, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-GE-180, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 68Ga-DOTATATE, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-DOTATATE, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 68Ga-DOTANOC, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FDR-NOC, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 68Ga-DOTATOC, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-DOTA-DAPTA-comb nanoparticles, 64Cu-DOTA-ECL1i, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-DOTA-vMIP-II, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-vMIP-II-comb nanoparticles, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FOL Folate receptor βMacrophages, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 68Ga-NOTA-MSA, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FDM, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-MMR and 68Ga-MMR nanobodies, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-fluorothymidine, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-fluoromethylcholine, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 11C-choline, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 68Ga-Fucoidan, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-DOTA-anti-P-selectin antibodies, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-4V, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-VCAM nanobody, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-HX4, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FMISO, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 62Cu-ATSM, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-fluciclatide, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-Galacto-RGD, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-Flotegatide, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 64Cu-DOTA-C-ANF, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | DOTA-CANF-comb nanoprobe, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-florbetaben, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-flutemetamol, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 68Ga-DOTATATE, | Preclinical | ||
| IBD and many inflammations | 18F-FET-βAG-TOCA | Preclinical | ||
| Optical/PAI | rheumatoid arthritis | ICG blood flow indicator | Clinical | (131) |
| Many tracers examples aMSH, MMP binding tracer, RGD, | Preclinical | (133–143) | ||
| VEGF targeting nanoparticles, ASMase targeting liposome, | ||||
| Alendronate targeted nanoparticles | ||||
| IBD | Hemoglobin | preclinical | (168) | |
| CD | Hemoglobin and fibrosispreclinical | (169–171) | ||
| Arthritis | L-selectin/P-selectin-targeting contrast agent | preclinical | (172) | |
| Arthritis | Hemoglobin | preclinical | (172–175) | |
| Atherosclerosis | gold nanorods conjugated with MMP2 antibody | preclinical | (140) | |
| Wound | Endogeneous bacterial fluoresence | Preclinical | reviewed in (158) | |
| Invasive- and biomaterial-associated bacterial infections | conjugated vancomycin to IRDye | Early clinical trial | (161, 167) | |
| Tuberculosis | fluorogenic substrates for beta-lactamase | preclinical | (164) | |
| Wound infection | Lectin base fluorescent nanoparticle | preclinical | (165) | |
| Bacterial infections (implants) | Antimicrobial peptide conjugated to a radioisotope and a fluorescent dye | preclinical | (166) | |
| Not limited to certain organs or diseases. Can be used to measure morphological changes of tissue. | Fluorecenct stains and/or autofluorecence | Certified medical devices for in vivo skin measurements avaible. Other applications are preclinical. | (184) | |
| Digital chromoendoscopy | IBD/colon | Mucosal surface patterns | Clinical | (191, 192) |
| Endoscopic ultrasound | IBD/colon | Total wall thickness, mucosal vascularity | Clinical | (193, 194) |
| Confocal laser endomicroscopy | IBD/colon | Crypt diameter, fluorescein leak, mucosal vascularity | Clnical | (195–203) |
| TPM | Not limited to certain organs or diseases. Can be used to measure morphological changes of tissue. | Fluorecenct stains and/or autofluorecence | Certified medical devices for in vivo skin measurements avaible. Other applications are preclinical. | (184, 236, 238) |
| OCT | Human eye | Clinical | (204, 205, 208, 210, 222, 223), | |
| Human coronary artery | Clinical | (205, 216) | ||
| Human oesophagus | Clinical | (205, 207) | ||
| Human small intestine | Clinical | (205, 207) | ||
| Human colon | Preclinical | (205, 207, 214, 228, 229) | ||
| Human biliary and pancreatic ducts | Clinical | (205, 207) | ||
| Human lung | Preclinical | (205, 217, 218) | ||
| Skin | Clinical | (205, 212, 224–226, 230–235, 239, 240) | ||
| confocal microscopy | skin | Clinical | (233, 237) |