Table 1.
Viruses: taxonomy, clinical presentation, and effects on male reproductive health
| Virus | Family | Genus | Genome | Clinical presentation | Effect on male reproductive health | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EBOV | Filoviridae | Ebolavirus | ssRNA (−) | Hemorrhagic fever | Testis as an anatomic reservoir for persistence | 156,157,158 |
| HBV | Hepadnaviridae | Orthohepadnavirus | dsDNA (RT) | Hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma | Sperm parameter alteration and infertility | 97,120,128,130,131,132 |
| HCV | Flaviviridae | Hepacivirus | ssRNA (+) | Hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma | Sperm parameter alteration and infertility | 97,120,129,133,134,135,136,137 |
| HSV-1 | Herpesviridae | Simplexvirus | dsDNA | Herpes labialis and genital herpes | Prostatitis, epididymitis, infertility, and sperm parameter alteration | 61,63,64,66 |
| HSV-2 | Herpesviridae | Simplexvirus | dsDNA | Genital herpes | Prostatitis, epididymitis, infertility, and sperm parameter alteration | 14,97,119,120,121 |
| HIV | Retroviridae | Lentivirus | ssRNA (RT) | AIDS | Orchitis, “Sertoli-cell only” syndrome, and infertility | 38,39,40,41,42 |
| HPV | Papillomaviridae | Alpha-, beta-, gamma-papillomavirus | dsDNA | Warts and preneoplastic lesions related to oropharyngeal genital and anal cancers | Subfertility and infertility | 13,94,95,96,97,98,101,102 |
| Influenza virus | Orthomyxoviridae | Influenzavirus | ssRNA (−) | Systemic and respiratory symptoms | Sperm parameter alteration | 164,165,166 |
| MuV | Paramyxoviridae | Rubulavirus | ssRNA (−) | Swelling of the parotid glands, salivary glands, and other epithelial tissues | Epididymo-orchitis and infertility | 25,26,27,28 |
| SARS-CoV | Coronaviridae | Betacoronavirus | ssRNA (+) | Severe acute respiratory syndrome | Orchitis | 8,171,194 |
| SARS-CoV-2 | Coronaviridae | Betacoronavirus | ssRNA (+) | Severe acute respiratory syndrome | Orchitis | 5,6,8,10,171,195,196 |
| ZIKV | Flaviviridae | Flavivirus | ssRNA (+) | Zika fever and congenital Zika | Orchitis, epididymo-orchitis, and infertility in mouse models. Sperm parameter alteration in men | 1,72,73,74,75,85 |
EBOV: Ebola virus; HBV: hepatitis B virus; HCV: hepatitis C virus; HSV-1: herpes simplex virus type 1; HSV-2: herpes simplex virus type 2; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; HPV: human papillomavirus; MuV: mumps virus; SARS-CoV: severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated-coronavirus; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated-coronavirus type 2; ZIKV: Zika virus; ssRNA (−): negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses; ssRNA (+): positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses; dsDNA: double-stranded DNA viruses; dsDNA (RT): double-stranded DNA reverse-transcribing viruses; ssRNA (RT): single-stranded RNA reverse-transcribing viruses