Table 1.
Effects of ginseng on different respiratory viruses’ infections.
| Ginseng Extracts and Compounds | Respiratory Viruses | Study Type | Observations | Conclusions | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| seven compounds- mainly belonging to P. ginseng | Coronavirus | Glide docking program was utilized for molecular docking | Floralginsenoside B, which is extracted from Panax ginseng, indicated a docking score of −8.61 Kcal/mole and showed high binding affinity by interacting with active pocket residues of 6M0J mainly through hydrogen bonds with Gln474, Cys 480, Gly 482, Glu465, and Asp467 than other compounds against the SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD. | The extracts and essential oils of Panax ginseng could be introduced as promising COVID-19 inhibitors. | [132] |
| Withania somnifera (Indian ginseng) | Coronavirus | Molecular docking and dynamics studies | Two different protein targets of SARS-CoV-2, namely NSP15 endoribonuclease and receptor binding domain of prefusion spike protein from SARS-CoV-2, were targeted. Molecular docking studies suggested Withanoside X and Quercetin glucoside from W. somnifera have favorable interactions at the binding site of selected proteins, that is, 6W01 and 6M0J. | Based on proven therapeutic potential against n-CoV-2 proteins, Indian ginseng could be one of the alternatives as an antiviral agent in the treatment of COVID-19. | [133] |
| Panax ginseng and Schizonepeta tenuifolia | SARS-CoV-2 and Infuenza A viruses. | In-vitro, Cells and cell culture, plasmid transfection and virus assembly, Cytotoxicity assays, Virus infection and drug inhibition assays | RDS contains broad-spectrum antiviral activity, blocking the infection of SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and Infuenza A viruses. | RDS may broadly inhibit the infection of respiratory viruses such as SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and Infuenza A. |
[134] |
| Ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) in combination with selenium | Newcastle disease virus and infectious bronchitis virus | Female yellow chickens | In-vitro, Hemagglutination inhibition test, Immunohistochemical staining for IgG+, IgA+ and IgM+ cells, sIgA assay, RT-qPCR, Transcriptome analysis. | Enhanced antibody responses in GSLS-Se group may be attributed to the immunomodulatory effects of GSLS-Se on the immune-related gene profile expressed in the immunocompetent cells of the HGs. | [84] |
| Ginseng stem-and-leaf saponin (GSLS) | Newcastle disease virus | White layer chickens | Experiment design, Hemagglutination inhibition test, Immunohistochemical staining for IgG+, IgA+ and IgM+ cells, sIgA assay, RT-qPCR, Transcriptome analysis. | GSLS could be a useful oral adjuvant to improve vaccine immunization in chickens. | [135] |
| Extract of Korean red ginseng (RG) | Influenza A virus | In vitro and In vivo mice model | Polysaccharide fraction was most effective in reducing the accumulation of (TNF-α)/(iNOS)-producing dendritic cells (tip DCs) in the mouse lungs. | Polysaccharides of RG have a pronounced beneficial effect on the symptoms of influenza virus infection. | [136] |
| Extract of Korean red ginseng | H1N1 and H3N2 influenza viruses | In vitro, Naive mice model | Red ginseng extract showed significantly enhanced protection, lower levels of lung viral titers and interleukin-6, but higher levels of interferon-γ compared with control mice having virus infections without red ginseng extract. | Intake of ginseng extract will have beneficial effects on preventing lethal infection with newly emerging influenza viruses. | [137] |
| Panax ginseng polysaccharide (PGP) | H1N1 (A/PR/8/34) and H3N2 (A/Philippines/82) influenza viruses | In vitro, mice study | PGP solution showed moderately enhanced survival rates and lower levels of lung viral titers and the inflammatory cytokine (IL-6). | This study demonstrated that PGP can be used as a remedy against influenza viral infection. | [138] |
| Black ginseng (BG) and red ginseng (RG) | A(H1N1) pdm09 (A/California/04/2009) virus. | In vitro, mice study | BG displayed a 100% survival rate against infection, while mice treated with RG had a 50% survival rate. | BG may be useful as an alternative antiviral adjuvant to modulate immune responses to influenza A virus. | [139] |
| Fermented ginseng extracts | Different strains of influenza viruses, H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N9. | Different genetic backgrounds of mice and in the deficient conditions of key adaptive immune components (CD4, CD8, B cell, MHCII) | In vitro cell culture experiments showed moderate virus-neutralizing activity by fermented ginseng extract, probably by inhibiting hemagglutination and neuraminidase activity. | Fermented ginseng extracts might provide a means to treat influenza disease regardless of virus strains. | [79] |
| Red ginseng extract (RGE) | influenza A virus | In vivo and in vitro, mice model | RGE was found to improve survival of human lung epithelial cells upon influenza virus infection. Also, RGE treatment reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory genes (IL-6, IL-8). | RGE might have the potential beneficial effects on preventing influenza A virus infections via its multiple immunomodulatory functions. | [90] |
| Ginseng extract and ginsenosides | Influenza A virus | In vivo and in vitro, mice model | Ginsenosides protected the animals from lethal 2009 pandemic H1N1 infection and lowered viral titers in animal lungs. | Ginsenosides are promising candidates for the development of antiviral drugs for influenza viruses. | [78] |
| Ginseng | Respiratory syncytial virus | BALB/c mice after RSV infection | Ginseng-treated mice that were non-immunized or previously immunized with FI-RSV showed improved protection against RSV challenge compared with control mice without ginseng treatment. | Ginseng can modulate host immune responses to FI-RSV immunization and RSV infection, resulting in protective effects against pulmonary inflammatory disease. | [140] |
| Panax Korean red ginseng extract (KRGE) | Respiratory syncytial virus | In vitro and in vivo | KRGE improved the survival of human lung epithelial cells against RSV infection and inhibited RSV replication. | Results suggested that KRGE has antiviral activity against RSV infection | [141] |
| Red ginseng extract (RGE) | RSV | In vitro cell culture and in vivo mouse models | RGE treatment improved lung viral clearance and enhanced the production IFN-γ in bronchoalveolar lavage cells upon RSV infection of mice. | Ginseng has protective effects against RSV infection through multiple mechanisms. | [23] |
| Seven ginsenosides | Human rhinovirus | Assays for antiviral activity and cytotoxicity were carried out by the sulforhodamine B method using the cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction assay. | The antiviral assays demonstrated that, of the seven ginsenosides, the PT-type ginsenosides (Re, Rf, and Rg2) possess significant antiviral activities against CVB3 and HRV3 at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. Only ginsenoside Rg2 showed significant anti-EV71 activity with no cytotoxicity to cells at 100 μg/mL | Ginsenosides Re, Rf, and Rg2 have the potential to be effective in the treatment of CVB3, EV71, and HRV3 infection. | [142] |
| Withania somnifera (Indian ginseng) | H1N1 Influenza virus | In silico study | High binding affinity of the WA toward NA and revealed several interesting molecular interactions with the residues which are catalytically important during molecular dynamic simulations. | Several interesting molecular interactions with the residues which are catalytically important during molecular dynamic simulations. | [143] |
Abbreviations: HG: Harderian gland; RDS: Respiratory Detox Shot; GSLS: ginseng stem-and-leaf saponins; TNF-α: Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; PGP: Panax ginseng polysaccharide; FI-RSV: Formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus; IFN-γ: Interferon-Gamma; BALB: Bagg Albino (inbred research mouse strain): IgA + cells, Immunoglobulin A-secreting cells; sIgA: Secretory Immunoglobulin A; NA: Neuraminidase; AI: Avian Influenza; CPE; cell viability and cytopathogenic effect; HRV3: Human rhinovirus 3.