Table 3.
Summary of related works on embedded BCIs for functional substitution: N/I: No indication, 0: bad, 1: good.
| Work | Year | Algorithms | Accuracy (%) | Platform | Time (ms) | Power (W) | Online/ Offline | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [13] | 2008 | 0 | 0 | Average filter, PCA, Linear regression | 74.6 | Virtex 6 | 2420 | 1.11 | Online |
| [49] | 2010 | 1 | 0 | FIR, DWT, SVM | N/I | Compact-RIO | N/I | 12.81 | Offline |
| [51] | 2015 | 1 | 0 | Theta spectra, threshold | 71 | FPGA Mobile tablet | N/I | 4 | Online |
| [52] | 2010 | 1 | 0 | STFFT, ICA, threshold | 78.24 | DSP | N/I | 1.11 | Online |
| [53] | 2017 | 0 | 0 | FFT, threshold | 99.4 | Micro2440SDK | ∼8500 | 24 | Online |
| [54] | 2013 | 1 | 0 | IIR, DWT, threshold hierarchical model | 91 | CompactDAQ | 2 | 12 | Online |
| [55] | 2016 | 0 | 1 | DWT, SVM | 82.1 | Odroid-xu4 | 0.11 | 20 | Offline |
| [56] | 2017 | 0 | 0 | Band-pass filter, average power, temporal correlation | 70 | Arduino Due MCU | 2.23 | 1 | Offline |
| [57] | 2014 | 0 | 0 | FFT, SLIC | 70 | Micro2440 (ARM) | 0.1 | 24 | Offline |
| [58] | 2017 | 0 | 1 | ERD/ERS, Adaptive Threshold | 75 | Zynq ZC7030 | 402 | 4.12 | Online, offline |
| [59] | 2014 | 0 | 1 | FFT, Mahalanobis distance | 82 | Blackfin, DSP | N/I | 4.02 | Online |
| [60] | 2014 | 0 | 0 | FFT | 98.8 | AT89S51, Tablet (AUSU) | 42 | 12 | Online |
| [48] | 2010 | 0 | 0 | Phase coding, FFT | 89.29 | Cyclone EP2C20Q FPG | 30.14 | ∼27 | Online |
| [61] | 2012 | 1 | 0 | FFT, Mardia test, Mahalanobis distance (MD) | 77.6 | Cyclone EP2C20Q FPG | 30.14 | ∼27 | Online |
| [14] | 2012 | 1 | 0 | Threshold | 61.6 | iPhone | 32 | ∼6 | Online |
| [62] | 2012 | 0 | 0 | FFT, Morlet Continuous Wavelet, Threshold | N/I | Spartan3 XC3S1400AN | 1 | N/I | Online |
| [63] | 2011 | 0 | 0 | PSD, LDA | 73.58 | ASIC, MSP430F1611, NRF24L | 200 | 0.001395 | Online |
| [23] | 2017 | 1 | 1 | Adaptive filter, CSP, MD | 94.47 | Stratix-IV | 394 | 1.067 | Offline |
| [64] | 2018 | 1 | 1 | WOLA filter bank, CSP, MD | 80.2 | Stratix-IV | 430 | 0.67 | Online, Offline |
| [65] | 2012 | 0 | 0 | Forward Filter, FLDA | 73.96 | Spartan 3E FPGA | N/I | N/I | Online |
| [66] | 2012 | 0 | 0 | FIR filterbank, Hidden Markov Models | 76.5 | Spartan 6 FPGA | N/I | N/I | Online |
| [67] | 2016 | 1 | 0 | adaptive filtering | N/I | FPGA Virtex-5 LX50T | N/I | N/I | Online |
| [68] | 2020 | 0 | 0 | PSD, band-pass filtering, canonical correlation analysis (CCA) | 80 | XC7K325T-2FFG900C | N/I | N/I | Online |
| [69] | 2017 | 0 | 0 | Median, FIR filter, FLDA | N/I | Virtex-5 | 0.01 | 0.67 | Online |
| [70] | 2015 | 0 | 0 | ICA, Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) | 86.5 | FPGA | 32000 | N/I | Online |
| [71] | 2016 | 0 | 0 | Blind Source Separation (BSS), CCA | 93.41 | FPGA | N/I | N/I | Online |
| [72] | 2018 | 0 | 0 | Sparse Bayesian Learning (BSBL), multi-layer perceptron regressor | 89.85 | Virtex7, ARM | N/I | N/I | Online |
| [47] | 2019 | 0 | 1 | CNN | 80.5 | Xilinx BNN-PYNQ | 1.97 | 0.025 | Offline |
| [73] | 2015 | 0 | 0 | FFT, Threshold | 88.88 | Xilinx & PC Tablet | 4430 | 70 | Online |
| [74] | 2018 | 1 | 0 | Surface Laplacian, Separable Common Spatio Spectral Pattern (SCSSP), Mutual Information (MI), Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), and Support Vector Machine (SVM) | 81.9 | Virtex-6 FPGA | 0.550 | 83 | Online & offline |
| [75] | 2020 | 0 | 0 | FIR filter, averaging method | 90.62 | Cyclone II EP2C35 DSP | ∼2000 | ∼27 | Online |
| [76] | 2019 | 1 | 0 | Channel selection, wavelet, energy normalization, LDA | 80 | Xilinx | 7.5 | 0.102 | Offline |
| [77] | 2013 | 0 | 0 | FFT, threshold | 92.5 | FPGA, MCP3201 microcontroller | 5200 | 1.74 | Online |
| [78] | 2020 | 0 | 0 | Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) | 76 | DE0-nano board | 0.00052 | ∼0.05 | Online |
| [79] | 2019 | 0 | 0 | CCA | 87.89 | Cyclone IV EP4CE115 | 1500 | ∼0.05 | Offline |
| [80] | 2020 | 0 | 0 | Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) | 87.89 | MindReading photonic ULQ | 1500 | 0.2155 | Offline |
| [81] | 2019 | 0 | 0 | bandpass Butterworth filter, DWT, Feedforward Neural Network (FFNN) | 96.09 | Raspberry Pi 3B | N/I | 5.77 | Online |