Table 5.

Subcritical water extraction of carbohydrates.

Samples	Medicinal Parts	Compounds Extracted	Activity/Mixtures	Extraction Conditions	Analytical Methods	Other Extraction Methods (Solvent, Ratios of Yields)	Ref.
Lycium barbarum	berries	total sugar content	antioxidant (FRAP, TEAC), immunomodulatory	1:30 g/mL, 110 °C, 5 MPa	HPGPC	HWE (water 71.5%), UAE (water 89.9%), UWE (water 132%)	[11]
sunflower	sunflower heads	galacturonic acid, pectin		10–50 min, 2–8 mL/g, 100–140 °C, 0.2–1 MPa	TG/TGA, DSC, UV−vis, FTIR, HPSEC, NMR		[40]
Aronia melanocarpa	chokeberry stems	1 amino acid, 8 alcohols, 11 sugars, 2 fatty acids, etc.	antioxidant (DPPH), enzyme inhibitory activity	130 °C, 3.5 MPa, 20 min, 1:20 g/mL	GC-MS		[49]
Lentinus edodes	fruit bodies	hetero–polysaccharides, xylose, mannose, etc.	antioxidant (OH·, DPPH, ABTS)	120–160 °C,30–50 min, 0.033–0.05 g/mL	UV-vis, SEM, GC, GPC, FT-IR		[54]
Lentinus edodes	fruit bodies	l-rhamnose, d-arabinose, d-xylose, d-mannose	antioxidant (ABTS), growth inhibitory effect	100–150 °C, 10–30 min, 5 MPa	FT-IR, UV-Vis, AFM, GC, HP SEC-MALLS		[55]
Lentinus edodes	fruit bodies	polysaccharides, rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, etc.	antioxidant (DPPH, reducing power)	140 °C, 40 min, 1:25 g/mL, 5 MPa	GC, FT-IR, AFM, SEM		[56]
Lentinula edodes	fruit bodies	TCC, total β-glucan, chitin	HMGCR, immuno- modulatory	200 °C, 11.7 MPa, 15–60 min	GC-MS, HPSEC, NMR	UAE (water 65.2%), HWE (water 32.3%), SPE (water 33.0%)	[57]
Grifola frondosa	fruit bodies	total polysaccharide, total protein	antioxidant (DPPH, reducing power)	100–230 °C, 2–4 min, 20–100 mesh, 5 MPa	FT-IR, SEM	HWE (water ~87.8%)	[58]
Sagittaria sagittifolia L.	fruit bodies	polysaccharides	antioxidant (DPPH, ABTS, reducing power)	150–190°C, 12–20 min, 1:20–1:40 g/mL, pH 7–9	FT-IR, 1H and 13C NMR, UV	HWE (water 55.8%)	[59]
Sagittaria sagittifolia L.	fruit bodies	l-rhamnose, d-arabinose, d-xylose, d-mannose	antioxidant, immuno-modulatory	170°C, 16 min	HPLC, GC, SEM, IR, AFM, HPSEC-MALLS	HWE (water 75.6%); UAE (water 96.1%)	[60]
Sagittaria sagittifolia L.	fruit bodies	α-pyranose polysaccharide, β-pyranose polysaccharide	immuno-stimulatory	1 MPa, pH 7,170 °C, 16 min, 30:1 mL/g	IR, GC-FID, UV, HPSEC, AFM		[61]
Cordyceps militaris	fruit bodies	total sugars, protein and uronic acid		180 °C, 13 min, pH = 8, 21 mL/g	IR, GC, AFM, GPC-MALLS		[62]
wheat	bran	monosaccharide, etc.	antioxidants (DPPH)	160–180°C, 5–60 min	HPAEC-PAD, SEC		[153]
Saccharina japonica		fucoidan, fucose, glucose, galactose, mannose, etc.	antioxidant, antimitotic anti-proliferative	100–180 °C, 5–15 min, 2–8 MPa	FTIR, TGA, UV-Vis	convention (0.05 M HCl 100%)	[154]
Citrus grandis L.	pomelo peel	pectin		90–120 °C, 3–10 MPa	HPSEC-MALLS		[155]
Theobroma cacao L.	cacao pod husks	xylose, arabinose, etc.		121 °C, 30 min, 10.3 MPa	FT-IR, GC-FID, SEM	convention (4% citric acid 76.1%)	[156]
Kappaphycus alvarezii. A		ĸ-carrageenan, glucose, 3,6-anhydrogalactose, etc.	antioxidant (DPPH, ABTS)	60–180°C, 5 MPa, 5 min	FTIR, TGA, XRD	convention (water 94.3%; water with IL 101%)	[157]
Pseuderanthemum palatiferum	leaves	TCC, monosaccharides	anticoagulant, antioxidant	150–200°C, 5–10 mL/min	HPLC, GPC, NMR, UV	convention (0.1 M NaOH 48.8%)	[158]
wheat	bran	TCC, reducing sugar, arabinose, xylose, etc.	antioxidant, α-amylase inhibitory	140 °C, 5 MPa, 30 min	SEC-MALLS, FT-IR, DLS, DSC, UV	SBWE (water with citric acid 97.6%); UWE (water with citric acid 103%)	[159]
Lycium barbarum L.	fruits	polysaccharides	antioxidant (O2·, OH·, DPPH)	5 MPa, 25 mL/g, 110 °C, 1 h	UV	HWE (water 86.2%); UAE (water74.9%); UWE (water 111%)	[160]
Cocos nucifera L.	defatted coconut	mannose, galactosamine, xylose, rhamnose, etc.	antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, adsorption	1:10–1:50 g/mL, 10–50 min, 120–200 °C, 20–100 mesh	HPLC, XRD, TGA, DTGA, SEM, FT-IR		[161]
okara		polysaccharides, TP, TF	antioxidant (ABTS, DPPH)	1:30 g/mL, 160–230 °C, 10 min	UV		[162]
Saccharina japonica		polysaccharide, fucoidan, alginate	antioxidant (ABTS, DPPH, FRAP)	100 –150 °C, 1–5 MPa, 1:30–1:50 g/mL	IR, DSC, TGA, 1HNMR, HPLC, HPSEC-ELSD		[163]
Passiflora edulis	fruit peel	pectic polysaccharide, mannose, glucose, etc.	antioxidant (DPPH)	100–160 °C, 5.64–7.94 min, 10–30% ethanol	HPLC, UV, viscometer		[164]
Chlorella vulgaris, Sargassum vulgare, Sargassum muticum, Porphyra spp., Cystoseira abies–marina, Undaria pinnatifida and Halopitys incurvus, Rosmarinus officinalis L., Thymus vulgaris, Verbena officinalis	microalgae, algae, leaves	sugar, TP, melanoidins	antioxidant (ABTS, O2¯)	100–200 °C, 20 min, 10 MPa	UV		[165]
rice bran	bran	protein, TCC, TP	antioxidant (DPPH)	120–250 °C,0.5–5 mL/min	UV, UV-Vis		[166]
Nizamuddinia zanardinii		TCC, rhamnose, xylose, arabinose, fucoidan, fucose	antioxidant, anticancer, macrophage, etc.	425 rpm, 10–30 min, 90–150 °C, 0–40 mL/g, 0.75 MPa, 1500 W	FT-IR, GC-MS, SEM, UV, HPSEC-MALLS-RI		[167]
Dendrobiumnobile Lindl.	stems	polysaccharide, arabinose, galactose, glucose, etc.	antioxidant (OH·, ABTS)	0.5–1.5 MPa, 5–20 min 120–160 °C, 1:25 g/mL	UV−vis, GPC, HPLC, HPAEC		[168]
Ecklonia maxima		TP, polysaccharide, sulphate, and alginate	antioxidant (ABTS)	100–180 °C, 5–30 min, 10–50 mL/g, 4 MPa	UV, elemental analysis, ICP-MS	convention (70% ethanol 0%; 0.05 M HCl 20.1%)	[169]
Vitis vinifera	grape pomace	glucose, fructose, galactose, arabinose, mannose, etc.	antimicrobial, antioxidant (DPPH)	170–210 °C, 10 MPa, 5–10 mL/min	HPLC, UV		[170]
green coffee beans	spent coffee grounds	carbohydrates, phenolics	antioxidant, antibacterial	150–220 °C, 7 MPa, 10 mL/min,	HPLC, UV,		[171]
Tamarindus indica	seed	TP, xyloglucan	antioxidant (DPPH)	100–200°C, 1:20 g/mL	SEC, UV	convention (water 74.6%)	[172]
Mentha arvensis	leaves	carbohydrates, apocynin	antioxidant (DPPH)	180–260 °C, 1:20 g/mL, 5 min	HPLC, GC-MS, UV,		[173]