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. 2021 Jul 12;26:72. doi: 10.1186/s12199-021-00995-5

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Evidence gleaned from human observational studies and animal models is essential in characterizing adverse health outcomes and deciphering the mechanisms of action to support preventive intervention testing. Selected strengths of these two methodological approaches are highlighted in the Venn diagram. In this review, we synthesize the scientific evidence on adverse health outcomes in children following prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ultrafine particles (UFPs, PM_0.1). Additionally, we summarize the evidence on underlying mechanisms of action. Created with BioRender.com