Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Study | Region | Study design | Participants and group allocation | Intervention | Control | Main outcome measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bega et al. (2016) [10] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 7;): age (y): 67.9 ± 10.9; gender (M/F): 5/2; HY: 2.3 ± 0.4 Control group (n: 7): age (y): 66.7 ± 9.3; gender (M/F): 6/1; HY: 2.4 ± 0.5 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 60 min, 2/wk × 12 wk (deep breathing exercises and relaxation techniques; pose targeting; meditation) | Control group: resistance training | TUG, UPDRS, BBS, PDQ-39, BDI |
| Boulgarides et al. (2014) [12] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 10): age (y): 65.7; gender (M/F): 7/3; HY: 2.6 Control group (PD): age (y): 65.7; gender (M/F): 7/3; HY: 2.6 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 60 min, 1/wk × 8 wk (postural training; meditation; deep relaxation) | Control group: wait-list | UPDRS, HADS, BBS |
| Cherup et al. (2020) [20] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 15): age (y): 69.8 ± 7.3; gender (M/F): 10/5 Control group (n: 18): age (y): 71.4 ± 12.1; gender (M/F): 11/7 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 45 min, 2/wk × 12 wk (postural training; meditation) | Control group: proprioceptive training 45 min, 2/wk × 12 wk | TUG |
| Cheung et al. (2018) [21] | Australia | RCT | Experimental group (n: 10): age (y): 63.5 ± 8.5; gender (M/F): 7/6; HY: 2 ± 0.8 Control group (n: 10): age (y): 65.8 ± 6.6; gender (M/F): 8/5; HY: 2 ± 0.8 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 60 min, 2/wk × 12 wk (poses; breathing techniques; meditation) | Control group: the wait-list group: usual care | UPDRS, MoCA, Beck Depression Inventory |
| Colgrove et al. (2012) [22] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 8): age (y): 62.8 ± 13.2; gender (M/F): 2/6; HY: 1.3 ± 0.3; duration of disease (y): 3.8 ± 2.9 Control group (n: 5): age (y): 73.4 ± 6.5; gender (M/F): 4/1; HY: 1.2 ± 0.4; duration of disease (y): 3.7 ± 22.2 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 60 min, 2/wk × 12 wk (poses; breathing techniques; meditation) | Control group: yoga sessions 12 wk | UPDRS-III, BBS, ROM, muscle strength gait (postural sway and gait initiation) |
| Jojo et al. (2019) [11] | China (Hong Kong) | RCT | Experimental group (n: 71): age (y): 63.7 ± 8.2; gender (M/F): 37/34 Control group (n: 67): age (y): 63.5 ± 9.3; gender (M/F): 28/39 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 90 min/wk × 8 wk (breathing exercise (15 min); mindfulness practice (15 min); yoga practice (60 min)) | Control group: stretching and resistance exercises 60 min/wk × 8 wk | HADS, UPDRS-III, TUG, HWS, PDQ-8 |
| Khuzema et al. (2020) [23] | India | RCT | Experimental group (n: 9): age (y): 68.11 ± 4.23; gender (M/F): 6/3; duration of disease (y): 6.2 ± 1.67 Control group (n: 9): age (y): 70.89 ± 6.01; gender (M/F): 7/2; duration of disease (y): 5.23 ± 3.12 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 30–40 min, 8 wk (postural training; deep breathing exercises) | Control group: conventional balance exercise 30–40 min, 8 wk | BBS, TUG, 10-Minute Walk test |
| Myers et al. (2020) [13] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 13): age (y): 70.5 ± 8.7; gender (M/F): 7/6; HY: 2 Control group (n: 13): age (y): 65.0 ± 8.7; gender (M/F): 8/5; HY: 2 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 60 min, 2/wk × 12 wk (relaxation and meditation 5 minutes; gentle spinal movements 10 minutes; standing poses 30–35 minutes; cool down 5–10 minutes; rest and relaxation 5 minutes) | Control group: usual daily routines 12 wk | BESTest, BAI |
| Ni et al. (2016) (same study with Ni et al. 2016) [9, 16] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 13): age (y): 71.2 ± 6.5; gender (M/F): 11/2; HY: 2.2 ± 0.7; duration of disease (y): 6.9 ± 6.3 Control group (n: 10): age (y): 74.9 ± 8.3; gender (M/F): 4/6; HY: 2.1 ± 0.7; duration of disease (y): 5.9 ± 6.2 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 1 h, 2/wk × 12 wk (poses and deep breathing exercises) | Control group: 1-hour nonexercise, health education class,1/mo × 3 mo | UPDRS-III, BBS, Mini-BESTest, TUG, PDQ-39 |
| Puymbroeck et al. (2018) (same study with Walter et al. 2019) [18, 19] | USA | RCT | Experimental group (n: 15): age (y): 65.53 ± 6.09; gender (M/F): 10/5 Control group (n: 12): age (y): 70.5 ± 4.44; gender (M/F): 7/5 |
Experimental group (yoga): yoga exercise 60 min, 2/wk × 8 wk (posture; pranayama; dhyana) | Control group: usual care 8 wk | UPDRS, Mini-BESTest FGA, FOG, PFS-16, PDQ-8 |
RCT: randomized controlled trial; M: male; F: female; values are mean ± SD; HY: Hoehn and Yahr scale; min: minute; wk: week; mo: month; TUG: Timed Up and Go test; UPDRS: Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale; UPDRS-III: the motor subscale of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale; BBS: Berg Balance Scale; PDQ-39: Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire-39; BDI: Beck Depression Inventory; HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; MoCA: Montreal Cognitive Assessment; ROM: range-of-motion; HWS: Holistic Well-being Scale; PDQ-8: Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire-8; Mini-BESTest: Mini-Balance Evaluation Systems Test; BAI: Beck Anxiety Inventory; FGA: Functional Gait Assessment; FoG: Freezing of Gait Questionnaire; PFS-16: Parkinson's Fatigue Scale-16.