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. 2019 Mar 27;36(15-16):7747–7775. doi: 10.1177/0886260519836952

Table 2.

Sample Numbers and Unadjusted and Adjusted Associations Between Economic Variables, Empowerment Variables, and IPV and Abuse Among Married/Living Like Married Women (n = 415).

Variables Total n = 415 (%) Unadjusted ORs (95% CI)
 Adjusted ORs (95% CI) a
Physical/Sexual Violence (<12 months) Emotional Abuse (<12 months) Economic Abuse (<12 months) Physical/Sexual Violence (<12 months) Emotional Abuse (<12 months) Economic Abuse (<12 months)
Sociodemographic characteristics
 Age (years)
  <35 61 (14.7) ref ref Ref ref ref
  35-55 324 (78.3) 0.42 [0.2, 0.9] 0.40* [0.2, 0.8] 1.06 [0.5, 2.4] 0.33 † [0.1, 1.3] 0.27 [0.1, 0.7] 1.84 [0.5, 6.7]
  55+ 29 (7.0) 0.43 [0.1, 2.1] 0.59 [0.2, 1.8] 0.49 [0.1, 2.4] 1.67 [0.1, 18.6] 0.45** [0.1, 2.9] 1.29 [0.1, 20.6]
 Household socioeconomic position
  Low 116 (28.0) ref ref ref
  Medium 139 (33.6) 0.28** [0.1, 0.7] 0.51* [0.3, 0.9] 0.63 [0.3, 1.3] Ref ref ref
  High 159 (38.4) 0.46* [0.2, 1.1] 0.52** [0.3, 0.9] 0.54* [0.3, 1.1] 0.12** [0.0, 0.5] 0.56 [0.2, 1.4] 0.74 [0.2, 2.2]
Economic situation
 Female-headed household
  No 354 (85.3) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Yes 61 (14.7) 1.32 [0.5, 3.3] 0.70 [0.3, 1.6] 1.16 [0.5, 2.5] 1.05 [0.3, 4.1] 0.25 [0.1, 0.8] 1.22 [0.4, 3.8]
Number of children <18 years living at home (woman responsible for) b
  None 91 (21.9) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  1 or 2 183 (44.1) 1.17 [0.4, 3.2] 0.87 [0.4, 1.8] 2.78** [1.1, 6.9] 1.89 [0.5, 7.6] 1.40 [0.5, 3.6] 5.01 [1.4, 17.6]
  3 or more 141 (34.0) 1.44 [0.5, 3.9] 1.07 [0.5, 2.2] 2.20 [0.8, 5.7] 1.58 [0.4, 6.8] 1.64 [0.6, 4.6] 4.17* [1.2, 15.6]
Proportion of money contributed to household by woman
  None 141 (34.0) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Half or less 188 (45.3) 1.78 [0.7, 4.5] 1.06 [0.6, 1.9] 0.71 [0.4, 1.3] 2.00 [0.5, 7.7] 1.35 [0.6, 3.2] 0.92 [0.3, 2.3]
  Most of it 65 (15.7) 2.68* [0.9, 7.7] 1.10 [0.5, 2.5] 0.62 [0.2, 1.5] 1.52 [0.3, 7.5] 1.19 [0.4, 4.0] 0.53 [0.1, 2.1]
  All of it 21 (5.1) 2.01 [0.4, 10.4] 1.42 [0.4, 4.7] 0.54 [0.1, 2.5] 0.41 [0.0, 8.2] 1.01 [0.1, 8.4] 1.00
Not earning enough to cover costs
  Never 182 (45.7) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Once 79 (19.8) 1.16 [0.4, 3.5] 1.06 [0.5, 2.3] 0.74 [0.3, 1.7] 1.94 [0.4, 8.5] 1.28 [0.4, 3.6] 0.70 [0.2, 2.4]
  Few to many times 137 (34.4) 2.27* [0.9, 5.1] 1.46 [0.8, 2.7] 1.19 [0.6, 2.2] 6.12** [1.7, 22.3] 2.15 † [0.9, 5.0] 1.27 [0.5, 3.2]
Proportion of money reinvested in business
  None 162 (40.8) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Less than half 202 (50.9) 1.56 [0.7, 3.6] 0.92 [0.5, 1.7] 0.52* [0.3, 0.9] 1.74 [0.5, 5.6] 0.98 [0.4, 2.2] 0.57 [0.2, 1.4]
  More than half 33 (8.3) 3.03 † [0.9, 9.7] 1.84 [0.7, 4.5] 0.85 [0.3, 2.4] 3.68 [0.6, 24.2] 3.26 † [0.8, 12.8] 0.91 [0.2, 4.1]
Type of borrowing
  Continuously 339 (81.9) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Interrupted 18 (4.2) 1.51 [0.3, 6.9] 1.31 [0.4, 4.7] 0.50 [0.1, 3.8] 2.16 [0.1, 52.3] 1.05 [0.2, 8.9] 0.55 [0.1, 10.1]
  New loan 57 (13.8) 1.15 [0.4, 3.1] 2.12** [1.1, 4.2] 3.89** [2.1, 7.5] 0.40 [0.1, 1.9] 2.83** [1.1, 7.4] 6.35** [2.2, 18.5]
Power within self
Self-confidence and confidence in communication
  Very confident 261 (62.3) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Confident, but need encouragement 95 (22.9) 0.67 [0.3, 1.7] 0.98 [0.5, 1.9] 1.04 [0.5, 2.0] 0.96 [0.2, 3.8] 0.68 [0.3, 1.7] 0.89 [0.3, 2.4]
  Not confident 59 (14.2) 0.52 [0.2, 1.8] 1.02 [0.5, 2.2] 0.44 [0.2, 1.3] 0.06* [0.0, 0.9] 0.20** [0.1, 0.8] 0.22 [0.1, 1.3]
Financial confidence
 Confidence to raise money to feed family alone
  Very confident 288 (69.7) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Moderately or not confident 125 (30.3) 1.35 [0.6, 2.8] 1.44 [0.8, 2.5] 1.25 [0.7, 2.3] 0.75 [0.2, 3.5] 2.06 [0.7, 5.7] 1.03 [0.3, 3.5]
 Confidence to raise money alone in the event of a crisis
  Very confident 217 (52.7) ref ref ref Ref Ref ref
  Moderately or not confident 195 (47.3) 1.37 [0.7, 2.8] 1.38 [0.8, 2.4] 1.66 † [0.9, 2.9] 0.79 [0.2, 2.8] 0.89 [0.3, 2.3] 0.79 [0.3, 2.3]
 Ability to survive a financial crisis compared with 2 years ago
  Better 356 (87.0) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Same or worse 53 (13.0) 1.70 [0.7, 4.3] 1.60 [0.8, 3.3] 1.74 [0.8, 3.7] 1.17 [0.3, 4.9] 1.41 [0.5, 3.9] 1.47 [0.5, 4.8]
Power within relationship
 Household dynamics
 Perceived contribution viewed by partner
  Woman’s contribution most important 265 (65.6) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Woman’s contribution somewhat/not important 139 (34.4) 1.90 † [0.9, 3.9] 1.92** [1.1, 3.3] 1.95** [1.1, 3.5] 2.03 [0.5, 7.3] 1.80 † [0.7, 4.3] 2.82* [1.0, 7.8]
 Perceived contribution viewed by self
  Woman’s contribution most important 308 (74.4) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  Woman’s contribution somewhat/not important 106 (25.6) 0.77 [0.3, 1.8] 0.82 [0.4, 1.6] 0.69 [0.3, 1.4] 0.88 [0.2, 3.6] 0.61 [0.2, 1.6] 0.29* [0.1, 0.9]
 Household decision-making
 Household economic decisions
  She decides 130 (31.2) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  They decide 131 (31.5) 0.31 [0.1, 1.2] 0.28** [0.1, 0.7] 0.33** [0.1, 0.9] 0.06** [0.0, 0.5] 0.15** [0.0, 0.5] 0.14** [0.0, 0.5]
  He decides 155 (37.3) 2.05 † [0.9, 4.7] 1.41 [0.8, 2.6] 1.88* [1.0, 3.6] 1.46 [0.4, 4.8] 0.95 [0.4, 2.2] 0.97 [0.3, 2.7]
 Social decisions
  She decides 142 (35.8) ref ref ref Ref Ref ref
  They decide 159 (40.1) 0.79 [0.4, 1.7] 0.46** [0.2, 0.9] 0.64 [0.3, 1.2] 1.42 [0.4, 5.2] 0.28** [0.1, 0.7] 0.52 [0.2, 1.5]
  He decides 96 (24.2) 0.60 [0.2, 1.6] 0.57 [0.3, 1.1] 0.79 [0.4, 1.6] 0.18 [0.0, 0.9] 0.18* [0.1, 0.5] 0.41 [0.1, 1.4]
 Reproductive decisions
  She decides 52 (13.1) ref ref ref Ref ref ref
  They decide 153 (38.4) 2.13 [0.5, 9.8] 0.91 [0.4, 2.3] 1.25 [0.4, 3.6] 7.48** [1.0, 5.85] 3.19 † [0.8, 11.7] 3.69 [0.8, 17.9]
  He decides 193 (49.5) 2.73 [0.6, 12.1] 1.42 [0.6, 3.4] 1.73 [0.6, 4.7] 5.70* [0.8, 39.4] 3.02 † [0.9, 10.2] 3.62 † [0.8, 16.3]
 Sexual Relationship Power Scale
  High power 120 (29.8) ref ref ref ref ref Ref
  Low power 283 (70.2) 15.2** [2.1, 11.2] 3.30** [1.5, 7.2] 6.38** [2.2, 18.1] 10.83** [1.2, 9.6] 2.17* [0.8, 5.8] 10.19** [2.4, 43.2]
 Relative educational status
  Neither have any secondary education 165 (40.0) ref ref ref ref Ref ref
  Only she has some 137 (33.2) 1.10 [0.8, 4.7] 1.24 [0.7, 2.3] 1.32 [0.6, 2.7] 1.64 [0.3, 4.5] 0.68 [0.1, 8.0] 0.80 [0.1, 13.1]
  Only he has some 25 (6.1) 1.51 [0.3, 7.4] 0.25 [0.1, 2.0] 0.36 [0.1, 2.8] 6.54 [0.6, 67.5] 0.71 [0.1, 6.8] 1.08 [0.1, 12.2]
  Both have at least some 85 (20.6) 1.80 [0.7, 4.8] 1.22 [0.6, 2.5] 2.5** [1.2, 5.1] 1.14 [0.2, 8.9] 0.70 [0.0, 8.4] 2.63 [0.2, 42.9]

Note. IPV = intimate partner violence; OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

Statistical significance p value † between .1 and .05, *p < .05. **p < .01

a

In the adjusted analysis, the results for physical and/or sexual violence, economic abuse and emotional abuse have been adjusted for economic situation variables (Model 1), power within relationship (Model 2) variables, and power within self (Model 3) variables. The results presented are the final adjusted version for each type of IPV. All models have been adjusted for age and socioeconomic status variables.

b

Including children she has given birth to.