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| method | measured quantity | reference component | integration necessary | bandwidth requirement | influence of parasitics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sawyer–tower | charge Q | capacitor | no | moderate | high |
| virtual ground | current I | no | yes | high | low |
| shunt | current I | resistor | yes | high | high |
| current step | voltage V | no | no | moderate | moderate |
