Table 3.

Mixed-Effects Regression Models Predicting the Odds of Incarceration.

	Model 1			Model 2			Model 3
	β	SE	OR	β	SE	OR	β	SE	OR
Number of grades suspended	0.29	0.11**	1.34	0.23	0.11*	1.26	0.18	0.11	1.20
Demographic controls
Age (in years) at Round 1	−2.10	1.37	0.12	−2.53	1.37	0.08	−2.19	1.30	0.11
Age (in years) at Round 1 squared	0.08	0.05	1.08	0.09	0.05	1.09	0.07	0.04	1.08
Male	2.66	0.26***	14.29	2.59	0.26***	13.29	2.41	0.25***	11.08
Race/ethnicity (ref. = non-Hispanic White)
Non-Hispanic	0.49	0.21*	1.63	0.47	0.21*	1.60	0.37	0.21	1.44
Black
Hispanic	0.17	0.26	1.18	0.16	0.26	1.17	0.11	0.25	1.11
Married	−1.14	0.28***	0.32	−1.09	0.28***	0.34	−1.01	0 28***	0.37
Number of biological children	0.31	0.08***	1.37	0.29	0.08***	1.34	0.22	0.07**	1.25
Criminal and delinquent controls
log(Crime)	—	—	—	0.13	0.04***	1.14	0.12	0.04***	1.13
Respondent teen gang participation	—	—	—	0.78	0.22***	2.18	0.62	0.21**	1.85
Most peers belong in gang	—	—	—	0.01	0.09	1.01	−0.05	0.09	0.95
Delinquent peers	—	—	—	0.20	0.11	1.22	0.16	0.11	1.18
Socioeconomic controls
Educational attainment (ref. = high school)
Less than high school	—	—	—	—	—	—	0.97	0.19***	2.64
Some college or morea	—	—	—	—	—	—	−0.75	0.26*	0.47
Income (in 1997 dollars)	—	—	—	—	—	—	0.00	0.00	1.00
Mother’s education (ref. = high school)
Less than high school	—	—	—	—	—	—	−0.18	0.21	0.83
Some college	—	—	—	—	—	—	−0.58	0.26*	0.56
Bachelor’s degree or more	—	—	—	—	—	—	0.15	0.32	1.17
Contextual controls
Living in the South	—	—	—	—	—	—	−0.20	0.18	0.82
Family routines	—	—	—	—	—	—	0.04	0.02	1.04
School bonds	—	—	—	—	—	—	−0.05	0.04	0.95
Random intercept	6.16	10.09	474.44	9.28	10.11	10,706.57	7.73	9.66	2,279.45
χ2	684.51***			651.49***			533.00***
Percent of within-person variation	64.54			63.64			59.59

Note. n = 2,710; OR = Odds Ratio.

^aEducational attainment categories “some college” and “bachelor’s degree or more” collapsed in the Table 3 analyses due to small cell sizes.

^*p < .05.

^**p < .01.

^***p < .001.