Table 2. Pathogenesis, screening methods, diagnostic methods, treatment, and some useful information in brief. Abbreviations: ESCC, esophageal squamous cell cancer; EAC, esophageal adenocarcinoma; GEJAC, gastroesophageal junction adenocarcinoma; BCG: Bacillus Calmette-Guerin; CT scan, computed tomography scan; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging.
| Type of Disease | Pathogenesis | Screening & Diagnostic Methods | Treatment | Additional Information |
| Cervix | Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia exists due to chronic infection that can lead to cervical cancer (204) |
Pap smear (149) Colposcopy, cervical biopsy (149), avoid unnecessary excisions (205) |
Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), synthetic CDCA derivatives like HS-1199 and HS-1200 and the system of the cholic acid-functionalized star-shaped PLGA-b- TPGS (CA-PLGA-b-TPGS), polymeric nanoparticles control delivery of the drug, such as Docetaxel (149) | Progression of precursor lesions for cervical cancer takes more than 10 years (160, 206, 207) |
| Vulvar and vaginal | Vulvar and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN and VaIN) (208, 209) |
No screening methods are available (4) Direct visual examination, biopsy and histopathological examination (210) |
Surgery, external or internal radiation therapy, and systemic or regional chemotherapy (211) | The current treatment strategies, unfortunately, are not successful. The relapse rate is high (158) |
| Anal | Strongly links to a complex inflammatory process leading to anal cancers of squamous cell origin (167) |
Anal Papanicolaou smears (pap) and Southern blotting (212) High-resolution anoscopy (HRA) (212) |
An organized team to plan chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery (5) | It has a ratio of female to male being as high as 5:1 (165). HPV was positive in 83%-95% of patients (213). HPV is the reason for 90% of SCCA (214, 215) |
| Esophageal cancer | Chronic infection leads to ESCC (216) |
In high incidence area regular endoscopy (171) Endoscopy and biopsy (217) |
Chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery (217) | A significant relation between HPV and ESCC but not with EAC and GEJAC. Identification of HPV in this malignancy can be helpful for better response and outcome (216) |
| Colorectal cancer | Chronic infection leads to mutations in glandular cells of the colorectal mucosa of colon and rectum (218) |
Fecal occult blood test and colonoscopy (219) Colonoscopy and biopsy (220) |
Chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery (220) | Identification of HPV in this malignancy can be helpful for better response and outcome (216) |
| Prostate cancer | Still unclear (150) |
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) (179) Tissue biopsy (217) |
Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery and androgen deprivation therapy (217) | It is important to keep HPV infection in mind when encounters with unusual disease manifestations of the urogenital tract (221) |
| Urothelial cancer | Still unclear (222) |
No recommended screening method (223) Applying CT urography or MRI for upper urinary tract evaluation and cystoscopy for lower urinary tract evaluation (224) |
Intravesical chemotherapy or intravesical BCG (224) | Urothelial cancer is an overarching term that describes a number of tumors that arise from the urothelial lining of the bladder, renal pelvis, ureters, and urethra (225) |
| Testicular cancer | It leads not directly to testicular cancer but can provide a status of higher vulnerability induced by the tumor (226) |
No recommended screening method (227) Transscrotal ultrasonography (228) |
Orchiectomy, chemotherapy and radiotherapy (229) | No Additional information |
| Renal cancer | Still unclear (230-232) |
No recommended screening method (182) Renal CT scan with and without contrast or MRI with and without gadolinium enhancement (233) |
Surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy (182) | No Additional information |
| Penile cancer | Penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) (234) |
Data not found for screening methods No imagining technique can exactly detect micrometastatic lymph nodes. So, invasive inguinal lymph node diagnosis is recommended for all tumor stages from pT1G2 (235) |
Surgical methods (circumcision, wide local excision, and glans resurfacing), T-cell immune checkpoint inhibitors, and HPV genome targeting strategies (236, 237) | Penile SCC has four subgroups: warty, basaloid, keratinizing, and verrucous. Only the first two groups (warty and basaloid) are related to HPV (238, 239) |
| Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | Still unclear (240-242) |
P16 IHC, FISH, HPV genome detection in biopsy specimens (243) Endoscopy (nasopharyngolaryngoscopy, esophagoscopy, and bronchoscopy, as appropriate) and biopsies (195) |
EGFR TKI and low-dose radiation, trans-oral robotic surgery, many reduction surgeries and post-operative adjuvant therapies based on pathologic staging (244) | HPV-positive OPSCCs have a better therapeutic response and prognosis (240-242) |
| Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC) | CSCC is mostly seen in patients with epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV). EV is an autosomal recessive genodermatosis existed through mutations in EVER 1 and EVER 2 genes (200, 201) |
A total-body examination of the skin is the only screening test available (195) Biopsy (195) |
Surgical excision, cryotherapy, curettage, electrodesiccation, topical treatments (e.g imiquimod, 5-FU, ingenol mebutate, diclofenac, and retinoids) and radiation therapy (245) | Although most of CSCC have an excellent prognosis, some of them are susceptible to have poor outcomes (198) |
| Warts (Condyloma acuminate) | Available in the text. |
Regular physical examination, cytology/viral detection (246) Histologic examination of biopsy specimens (118) |
Topical and systemic. Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) is the best (124, 125) | Available In the text. |