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Balance between immunogenic and tolergenic states is linked with resorptive and osteogenic states of the bone. Chronic inflammation may be derived by increases in effector T-cells (TEFF) and effector memory T-cells (TEM). Bone is very sensitive to TNFα and IL-17A produced by T-cells. Estrogen (E2) prevents the conversion of TM to TEM. Tolerogenic T-cells (i.e., TREG and TcREG) promote bone formation through direct and indirect mechanisms. All Figures were created with (BioRender.com).
